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SIGNATURE

Environmental Education
for

uonservation and Development

Environmental Education
for Conservation and
Development

(Proceedings of the Second Inlernalional Conference
on Environmer\lal Education, New Delhi, 1985)

Editors:

Desh Bondhu
G. Berberet

Indian Environmental Society

Indiu Eaviroomeatal Society
• Firit Pubhsiied 19S7

a'o 2 sr 394 '.

No part of this book may be reproduced m any foriti, mechanical,
electronic or otherwne, without written permission of the Publisher.

Ss Ssc}-

Indian Environmental ^clety

P O. Box 7033
ladraprastha Estate *

New Delhi- 110002

Printed at .*

Vijaya Press
39/5, Mohammadpur
New Dellii-110066
Tel 677716

CONTENTS

DESH BANDHU

Introduction xi

Keynote Addresses

P.L. MALHOTRA

r*!« state of Sivi«f*j?entaJ Sditcaticn ir» rndia 1

HAHESHWAR DAYAL

Wen-eenventienaJ Sreryy Sources for Snvirensent Protection 6

L.H.A. REGO

Poie of Porest and Klidlife Sducatien in Pnt'iroroental
Censervatien 18

B. WAS SW2A

Pey Tssues of Wusan SettJeeents in Indian Perspective 22

H.R. BISVAS end A.K. BtSHAS

cJefeal SRvirensefltai frends 28

Enviromentel Education
Y. FUKUSHIKA

Soae pjrobless of tnvironsental Sducatien

S.V, CHiniBABU

tnvjTonoentsl £dvcatian and panaceaent
O.P. OUIVEOI, E. KISHORE and S. SHROTRUA
Protectiny the ffnrircnrenc; The Role or
educational Inatitutlens in India

H.D. KOPARDEKAR

Bnvircraental Sdircatien

R. E, LOB

Project-Based Teachlnj in rnvieonsental sducaticn

JUN UI

SnvircRoental Sdyeation in Japan

H.A. KHAN

EnvirensentaJ Challenjes and the Status of ffnvirorasental
Education in Fatisten

S. BALASUBRA.MANIAM and R.N. OE FONSEKA
Oppcrtanities and Constraints for Traininy feoloyists and
SnvironsentaJ Scientists in Sri CanJta

R.E. LOB

Environsertal Eduqstion in Federal Republic of Geroany

100

104

t.L. UHuncni

Environmental issues in the Caribbean- hn Educational
approach to Tackle Them

F. AMONI, M. BONNES. M.V, GIULIANI

Perceptiuon and EnvironaentaJ Education in a Wl?hJy Complex
Situation the Pone Case Study
A.B. SAXENA

Making Environmental Education Relevant in India

K.V. SARABHAI

COROTunication strategy for Environmental Education

0. PUNIA. R.K. PUNIA and M.L. SHARMA

Integration of Environmental Education in Teaching, Research
and Extension in Agricultural Universities

J.S. RAJPUT. V.P. GUPTA and J.S. GREMAL

Ceirpanson of Environmental Awareness Among Children of

non-formal Education Centers of M.R. and Waharashtra

Issues in Environnental Managemant

H.T. HEWAWA5AN

EnviroroertaJ ProbJeos and Their Mitigation Through

Upgrading Environmental Education in Sri Lanka T64

V GALAPITAGE

Conservation and Oeveiopment of Natural Resources of SriLanka 162

J.H. PERKINS

Silent spring- Implications for Third h’orld tevelopment 191

S.O. SHARMA

Environmental Consarvatien in Developing Countries 202

G.H. OZA

Global Illegal Trade in Wildlife 206

C. K. HISHRA

Development and Environmental Strategies • 213

R. C. DAS and B.N. NAIK

Need for Training and Extension Centres/Institutes for
Environmental Studies at State Levelb 218

M, KAMEL

Pesticide Poisoning and Treatment 222

D. KARKARIA

•Environmental interpretation 234

G. KARUNAKARAN

Environmental Education in the Eodaikanal

International school 238

S. B. SYNGHAL end VIJAY RAO

Engineering Education for Eeo-development of Hill hreas 244

R.C. NAITHANI

Social Forestry and its Role in Economic Development of
Himalayan Villages 248

110

119

138

148

152

158

vii

K. RAYI

EnviroDsental Pnblmes tad Snviroasental Education
2n Gujarat
KIRAN OESAI

Role of Ctarvnication in KesteJaarf DavelopBcnt

K. RAVI

Integration of CooeyaCeB and ITrfcan Systes3‘

An fnvj ronsentaJ Planning approach

V.K. GORASHETTAR, H.S. KAf.SlKERl. H.M. JAYASHEELA end

A.G. UCARKAR

EnvironsentaJ rducatjon at Post-graduate Level in the
rniversities in ITamataira

5.P. ew.EPJEE end G.S. KARWAHA

fnvironcental Edoeation for Mining Engineers in Developing
Countries

G. C. HATHIIR

fducationaJ lepact of Deoonstration Projects for Jeproveoent
of Rural Rousing

A, SHRIVASTAVA and G.P. SHRIVASTAVA

fnvjjronsentaJ lepaet of rndustrlal and Urban Setup on

fribal Wesen of R.P. and fiihar

Y.P. KUCESIA and S.P. VER^-A

Contribution of youths to the environsenta} Progratsoe
in India

H. VELAGA

youth in Service of Cnvircnoenc
A.H, SCWARH

cnviroRsental Planning for Ecotogicallg sustainable
Develcps<enst

G. TRCM^R

Proo Geological Phenooena Ho mviranoental Education
JOHN JUDY

renessee Valley Authority: A hodel for Cooperative
Pnvironsental Education
JERRY BERBERET

Cnvirensental Education for the Biosphere

F. WAD

Cwfiswefy.t*.! •/vravgvateK

K. BABA

A Coastal 2o»e Kanagesent Prograxe for Kerala state
R.G. DE5A1

Case Study of Sandur Mining Area

K.C. KATHDR. U.H. SKUKU and R.P. PATASI

EnvlronaentBl Straegies for Cioe Nbrjts; A Case Study of
Kaihar-Eatni Region of Kadhya Pradesh

H. 6ALAKRISHNAH

Conservation and Manageaent of Vila Massals In Kerala

251

270

274

281

283

?87

294

303

306

308

313

323

329

yi>

347

367

372

375

viil

PROMILA KAPOOR

Conservation of UnderexploiteS Plant Resourc«s oo/

H.M. JAYASHEELA. V.K. GCURASKETTAR. S.G. TENGINKAI and

G. SUBBARAO ,

Water pollution in Sandur Area, Seiiary (Karnataka) 390

K.S. SIVASAMI. K.N. PRASAD and L.H. PANOEY

Changes in Vegetative Cover in tAe Indravati Basin 394

J. E. DAVID and C. SATHYEHORA

CnvironmentaJ Sduoation with Special Reference to Pollution 402
S. SRINIVASARA6HAVAK

Snvironaiental Pollution Control and Scoloyy in Reyveli 414

H. M. OAYASHEELA and H, SARVESHHAR

heritage Conservation* A Case Study of Bampi Buins 432

R. BAWA and R. SINGH

Rentage Conservation of Natural Protected Area:

A Case Study of Lahul and Spiti 439

RAVI NARASIMHAN

Rater Pollution Monitoring Through Aeeote Sensing 450

Y.S. YADAVA

extent and Source of Aguatic Pollution in the firahoaputra
Drainage Sasin of Assaa 457

S. M.H. KHANOANI

Puelwoed for Pural Areas of the less Developed Countries 464
S.R. GUPTA and S.K, ROUT

Management and Profitable vse of Forest Resources of

Morni Mills 472

S.N. PATRO and B.N, MISRA

Shifting Cultivation: Ecological implieations 461

ASHA RAJVANSHI. RENU RANI and H.M. SRIVASTAVA

Emerging ProMeos of Pollution in the Boon Valley 489

S.T. TILAK

Environmental Monitoring in Conservation 495

A. PEERALLY and W. DESAl

Ecologically Sustainable Production of Protein from
Agricultural By-products and its Significance for
Environmental Protection 500

B. C. DAS, S. GHOSH and M.M. BISWAS

Evaluation and Monitoring of Environmental Education

Programme 518

G.D. KABRA and L. KABRA

Institution and Community Eased Environmental Education 528

K. SINGH, ^X. a?vd H.L. SHM«A

knowledge. Attitude and Practice of Family Planning in a
Maryana Village Coomunlty 532

ItM CoAf*r*nc* fuppcrtttf by

Indian national Sclanco Acadesy, Htv Delhi

CoaBitte« on Science and Technology in Deveiopin? Countries
fCOSTfDj

Unltei* Nations Educationai. Scientific and Cultural Organlsatior
fUNSSCOl

ynited Nations Envlrenoent Propraese (USSPf
Food and Agrteulture '•rgantsation of the vn (FAQ)

CouneiJ of scientific and indostrial Research iCSlR), hey (3eJAJ
Indian Council of agricultural Researcli flCaRl, Nev Delhi
International Oeveiopsent Nesearcn council (JDRCl, Ottawa

Sc/iool of Planning and architecturer New Oel/ii
Departnwnt of Environoent, Cort of India, New Delhi

INTRODUCTION

Desh Bandhu*

Environmental Education is a very broad subject. To quote
from the recorrrendations ofthe First Jntergovemsrental Conference
on Eviromental Education (Tbilisi 1977).

"A basic aim of environmental education is to succeed in
making individuals end corrvnities understand the compleji nature
of the natural and the built environments resulting from the
interaction of their biological, physical, social, economic and
cultural aspects and acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
and practical skills to participate in a responsible and effec-
tive way in anticipating and solving social problems, and in the
management of the quality of Che environment.

A further basic aim of environmental education is clearly to
show the economic, political and ecological interdependence of
the modern world in which decisions and actions by different
countries can have International repercussions. Environmental
education, should in this regard help to develop a sense of
responsibility and solidarity among countries and regions as the
foundations for a new intermational order which will guarantee
the conservation and improvement of the envlrontrent."

It need not be emphasised again that the environment has to
be considered in its totality to Include the natural, man-made,
technological and social (econocnlc, political, cultural, histori-
cal and aesthetic) facets. Envlronmenta) education. is a life-long
continuing process and has to be Imparted at all levels, formal
and non-fomal. Despite increased awareness of the environmental
Issues and concern over the deterioration of cur environment, the
human environment has only continued to show signs of further
deterioration. Bhopal tragedy, Chernobyl disaster or the recent
pollution of Rhine are only few examples of the serious situation
ijy .mwiV.tod f.wlpy', if jUNemod Abfv*’ /aipb

shall not occur again in future, the future of mankind shall
remain uncertain. This requires not only to ensure Incorporation
of enough safeguards at the planning and execution phases of
development projects, but environmental education at all levels.
Every individual should be environmentally conscious and aware of
his or her duties and responsibilities to safeguard the environ-
ment for today and tomorrow. Each Individual must understand the

President. Indian EnvironoentaJ SorieCt;, ffew Delfii

XI 1

possible environmental conseQuences of development projects. The
decision makers (bureaucracy and the politicians) should under-
stand and take into consideration environmental aspects in the
developmental process and also appreciate the need for and values
of conservation EnviroPTiental education must provide for enough
expertise at all levels for managing the natural resources In
environmentally sound manner and at the same time to handle any
unexpected environmental problem effectively and expeditiously.

The Second International Conference on Environmental Educa-
tion brouQht together people from over 35 countries with a wide
spectrum of background (social, cultural and economic) and expe-
rience in different fields of environment and environmental edu-
cation. The contributions presented and discussed at the Confer-
ence covered an equally wide range of subjects: Many papers dis-
cussed environmental Issues, degradation of environment resulting
from developmental activities and conservation needs In different
parts of the world to highlight the urgent need of environmental
education. In several papers, environmental education programmes
In primary and secondary schools.umversities, engineering insti-
tutions and other non-fonral education programes were discussed.
The importance of field studies and demonstration projects was
brought out in soma papers. The keynote speakers touched upon
several important topics. The state of environmental education in
India was reviewed by the Director of National Council of Educa-
tional Research and Training. Or Asit Biswas sunnarised the
global trends in environment today. The issues related to human
settlements, the need for greater emphasis on non-conventional
energy sources for betterment of our environment, and the Impor-
tance of forests and wildlife were highlighted in other three
addresses. Of special interest to the participants were the two
exhaustive reports on state of environmental education and other
environmental activities in India's two neighbouring countries,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Many other papers provide valuable mate-
rial for thought and action, it is hoped that these papers shall
stimulate ideas and further the cause of environmental education
for a better future for the mankind.

DELHI DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The Conference adopted the following statement now known as Delhi
Declaration on Environmental Edjcation

We the delegates to the Second International Conference on
Environmental Ecucation, held in New Delhi from March 4 to 9,
1985, under the auspices of the Indian Environmental Society and
the Department of Environment, Government of India, and with the
active support from the participation of a number of governmental

Xlll

and non-governr-ental agsncUs Including ths UN agencies . Inter-
national organisations and representatives of 35 countries, took
into account the efforts rade during the Stockholm Conference
(1972). followed by Belgrade Charter (1975), the Intergovernmen-
tal Conference at Tbilisi (1977) and the First Enviromantal
Education Conference. Hew Delhi (19S1). the International Work-
shop on Development and Biosphere Stability (Hew Delhi 19Bi) and
the Banff Declaration of the North American Association for
Enviromwntal Education Strategies (1984). further took note of
the following’

a. That it Is no longer possible to divide hirarr experience into
separate economic and ecological entities. Massive starvation in
Africa, technological disasters in Mexico and Bhopal, and threats
of Increasing pollution meke it nanbdatory for us to recognise
and integrate the environmental dimensions as a nist for sustain-
able development.

b. That the need of the poor, the greed of the rich and the care-
less application of technology are the major causes of environ-
mental degradation which need to be addressed in an integrated
and holistic manner as pointed out by Mrs Indira Dandhl at the UN
Conference on Hunan Environment (1972).

c. That the deliberations of this conference, including the
address delivered by the Vice-President of India and Minister of
State for Environment, emphasised the need for environmental
awareness as a pre-reguisite for action and called upon indivi-
duals groups, corrrunities. national governments and international
bodies to promote the cause of environmental conservation.

d. That, environmental education and training should be an Integ-
ral component of the educational process through formal and
Structured curricula as also through the non-forral madia. This
should aim at building professional manpower and an "environmen-
tally literate” and active citirens,

e. That the majority of the population in developing countries is
j.c the frft.'p, j>xtf J stJi)
remain outside the purview of a fonral educational system. The
potential capabilities of youth, children and womenfolk as stres-
sed by Hr Rajiv Gandhi tine end again should be introduced to the
environmental conservation prograime in the proposed revised
Educational Policy.

2. Based on deliberations and consensus as arrived at the Confe-
rence, we urge upon all concerned for iimadjate action on the
following recommendations*

XIV

a. Environmental education associations at the national level
should be established to serve the professional needs of environ-
mental educators, to create linkages with Governmental and non-
governmental agencies, and to assist in development and dissemi-
nation of curriculum traterials.

b. University teacher training programmes should incorporate
training in environmental education. Only when environmental
education assumes a central place In all education will It begin
to influence environmental management and policy. Such training
should include scientific and cultural strudies related to human
activities and the environment.

c Each nation should consider establishment of a Youth Environ-
mental Corps consisting of Youth (age 16-22): the Corps would
work on projects which promote ecologically sustainable develop-
ment, especially in rural area. Youth Corps projects should
provide environmental knowledge and skills for participants In
the programe.

d. Environmental Education Councils composed of local residents,
officials, farmers, teachers and businessmen and local bodies
responsible for various environmentally related projects and
programs should be established at the local level. Such Councils
would serve in an advisory capacity to assist in implementation
of progra’rmes at <he local level.

a. Environmental education demonstration projects should be
established at the local level in concert with economic develop-
ment projects to demonstrate the benefits of such a partnership.
Such projects are necessary to gam local support for environmen-
tal education and to provide a working model for ecologically
sustainable development.

f. Simple, easily applicable techniques should be daveloped for
use by rural school teachers to demonstrate the practical impor-
tance of conserving nature.

g. Environmental educators rust develop praction pedagogical
methods wh>ch address problems of environmental health in daily
life, e.g., clean drinking water, appropriate waste disposal,
proper sanitatiom practices, as well as provide concepts and

’re^tT'i’kTq Yfonari wviTonmeTit Twelatlon^lps.

h. Environmental education curricula should be reviewed and where
appropriate, revised to provide inclusion of scientific and cul-
tural (humanities, politics, economics) content sufficient to
ensure that students understand the scientific basis of environ-
ment and ecology and the organisation and processes of human

societies. Without this scientific and cultural understanding,
students are unabla-to develop a useful holistic perspective for
effective citizenship and professional life,

1. universities, educational and research and development insti-
tutions should he encouraged to generate new vistas of knowledge
relating to environfrental managena'*+ in their respective areas of
specialisation, and

j. The internatioral Society for Envirannenial Education should
establish a global Environmental Education conrunicatlons system
to disseminate Inforniatlon and monitor indicators of Biosphere *5
environmental guaiity such as soil erosion, freshwater availabi-
lity, food production, energy utiUzallon, population growth,
pollution loading, rates of deforestation, rates of desertifica-
tion end levels of soil salinisation.

THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

P. L. Hilhotra*

Concern for t/ie onvxrofwnt ha* bean a part of India'* social
and cultural heritage. This land of ours is the birthplace of
sages and of religions preaching loie for every living thing, a
concern for life and conservation of nature. India, of the bygone
eras, was in a way the land of nilk and honey, whose vast resour-
ces were exploited by many maurauders, and lastly she was coloni-
zed by the Dritish. PoBt-lndependence India has seen great achie-
vements on the one hand we have the Green Revolution ushering in
an era of self-sufficiency in food, and on the other we have made
giant strides in the utilization of resources, particularly pet-
roleum, and in the development of inJuatries, India today is a
leader amongst developing countries. There is however a gloomier
side to this picture.

- Our population is rising a( a very high rate and is predicted
to reach 1250 million by 2000 A.D.

• Total area under the threat of periodic floods has mere than
doubled in the last decade.

» The National Toreat Policy Act, 19S2 prescribed a minimum of
32% of the country's land area under forest cover, today there is
only 12% and that too is fast depleting.

• Here than 5000 million tonnes of the fertile topsoil are lost
every year due to erosion.

- According to national Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur (NEERl), industries of Greater Dombay add about
1000 tonnes of pollutants to the atnosphere every day of which
36.4% IB carbon monoxide and 34.4% is sulphur dioxide, rest
particulates, a/mnonla and oxides of nitrogen.

- and of course, there is Bhopal- a tragedy which will linger
in the minds of every corsclcus citizen of the world.

our concern in this country is but a reflection of what is
happening the world over. This concern found expression when UN
convened the Conference cn the tluman Environment in Stockholm in
1972. Addressing the Plenary Session of the Conference, our late
.•Vv.mr /inA*.*ir avwA*

'...one cannot be truly hunan and civilized unless one
looks upon not only all fellcwmen. but all nations with
eyea rf a friend.... Even though our industrial development
16 in its infancy and at its most difficult stage, we are

Director, National council of Educational Research and Training,
Srt Aorabindo Harg, New Delhi f6, India

taking various steps to deal with the incipient environmen-
tal imbalances, moreso because of our concern for the human
species which is also imperilled. In poverty he is threa-
tened by malnutrition and disease, in weakness by war, in
richness by pollution brought about by his own prosperity..
Environmental problems of the developing country are not a
side effect of excessive industrialization but reflect the
inadequacy of development. Life is one and the world is one
and all these questions are interlinked. Population explo-
sion, poverty, ignorance and disease, pollution of our sur-
roundings, stockpiling of nuclear weapons and biological
and chemical agents of destruction, are all parts of a
VICIOUS circle. Each is important and urgent.... The modern
man must re -establish the unbroken link with nature and
with life. He must again learn to invoke the energy of the
growing things and to recognise as did Che ancients in
India, centuries ago, that one can take from the earth and
atmosphere only so much as one puts back into them, in
their hymn to earth, sages of the Atharva Veda chanted: I
quote,

"What of thee I dig out let that quickly grow over,
let me not hit thy vital organs or thy heart."

It led the conference to proclaim "to defend and improve the
environment for present and future generations." Subsequent deve-
lopments such as the formation of UNCP, the Belgrade Charter
(ISIS) and the Inter-Governmencal conference on Environmental
Education, Tbilisi (1577) highlighted the role of education in
the halting of destruction of the envirOTi7»Tit. It man is to sur-
vive he can only do so in harmony with nature. Hia superior brain
has given him the power to mould the environment to his needs, to
draw from the mother earth all he needs to sustain himself and
his vagaries and luxuries. He has forgotten that he is but a very
small part of this delicately balanced system, nature. Realiza-
tion has come to him, hopefully, not too late. The lessons he has
learnt the hard way must be passed on to the future generations.

society expects the education system to build up environment-
conoious citizens. The necessity of environmental education, was
voiced by the International Union of Conservation of Nature way
back in the sixties and reiterated over the years in many confer-
ences. We in India, may justly feel proud that our national docu-
ments, like the Report of the Education Commission (1964-66) and
Curriculum for the Ten-year School: An Approach Paper (1975), all
Treed id environmental education. The present cur-
ricula cf general education that is classes I-X, has in it, ample
materials cn the environment, its problems and conservation. But
environmental education, to mind is not just awareness and Know-
ledge, It IS far more, it is development of proper attitudes, the
awakening of the urge to make the world a better place to live

in, tc be aware of vhat is happening around and above all, to act
without fear.

The formal education system has no doubt created awareness,
but how far can a rigid examination-based system lead to the
development of proper attitudes is a question that remains to be
answered. If we could rid the formal education system out of the
fetters of eKamination, take education out of the classroom and
let the children indulge in activities suitable for the conserva-
tion of the environment, ve would probably be building better
citizens for the future.

Vse aim at universalization of education. To my mind literacy
should not only be the three R's but also include environmental
education. This need not be taught as separate subject but could
be interwoven into the fabric of the three R's, thus enriching
the design of the curricula. This sort of interweaving should be
possible both for the formal and non-fornal systems. A beginning
has been made under the various OUICEF projects currently being
conducted by NCERT. There are laried approaches which will be
presented in another paper highlighting the NCERT activities in
the field of environmental education. i hope that this will be
discussed in this august body and that its deliberations will help
us in irrUibing mere life into the priinary curricula.

The general education upto class X should aiao be appraised
in terms of making environiBent conscious cititens, while the
curricula developed by NCERT have many environment-baeed concepts,
Che State eyl2ab2 lack much of It. Besides an envirerunent-baeed,
child-centered approach which is based on activities and projects
IS necessary for the inculcation of proper attitudes and values.
However, once again the examination system has defeated the
purpose of such eurrieulum designs. Hore stress Is laid on the
cognitive domain than on the pschyowotor or affective domains end
hence learning beeomeo a drudgery. To my mind the only way out of
this dileima is the proper organisation of extra-curricular acti-
vities. Science clubs, drama, debates, painting conpetitions, all
could highlight environmental issues, thus not only creating an
awareness amongst peer groups but also amongst the parents. It is
hooed that projects carried out under the aegis of science clubs
would ultimately lead to the developnent of proper attitudes.

Such extra-curricular activities cannot be only the responsi-
bility of the schools. Agencies, both voluntary and governioent,
cnust come forward to help in this matter, through organising
activities, giving expert advice and providing suitable informa-
tion, It IS rather sad that in this country where we have so much
expertise, so many questions that arise in the minds of children
remain unanswered for lack of cowminieation between the young and
the old. Is It not the time for the experts to step down from
their ivory towers and tc lead the future generation to better
understanding of his natural, social and cultural environment?

The NCERT is going to set up a National Science Centre at Hew

Delhi as part of its Silver Jubilee Celebrations, 1986. This
centre with its broad scope of envisaged activities, exhibitions
lectures, science clubs, teacher progracmes, and innovations in
terM of classroom experiments and kits will further the cause of
environmental education by filling the lacunae between scientists,
teachers and the younger generation. It will be, I hope, a centre
for dissemination of information for not only the educational
ceasaunity within India but also these from abroad and thus hlep
improveitent of science education in general and environmental
education in particular.

I fcFculd like to tell you at this stage about another exciting
prograsce which has been launched last year. It is called "Rea-
ding to Learn." Our children are starved of proper and attrac-
tive reading materials, and thus do not develop the habit of
reading, inculcation of such good reading habits lends to conti-
nuing education through life. He are proposing to bring out low
priced reading kits, which will highlight current issues like
deforestation, pollution, conservation of wild life, equality of
sexes. For the elementary level these will be read aloud by the
teachers, he hope these kits will lay the foundation for enviro-
nment consciousness and the urge to izqsrove the quality of life.

This brings us to the key-question of the training of teac-
hers. Teachers play the pivotal role in conveying the underlying
message of the curricula, and in the developeent of proper atti-
tudes. However, if the teachers do not have proper understanding
about the copies they teach or the attitudes that require to be
inculcated in their pupils, they will fail to realize its educa-
tional objectives. Our teachers, therefore, need to be infcmed
about the goals of environmental education, and how to achieve
them. They eust also be made aware of the environmental problems
that exist within this country and their solution so that they
nay face their classes with confidence. This is no mean task
considering we have 13 lakhs priaiary teachers, 6 lakhs mddle
school teachers, 5,5 lakhs secondary teachers and 2.9 lakhs
higher secondary teachers, and most of them without an adequate
background of the natural envircnmeent ita problems and conserva-
tion. This massive task can only be atteepted if all types of
organisations come forward to lend band. NCERT has carried out
csieh innovation in this area through its integrated B.Sc., B.Ed
courses, and M.Sc.Ed (Life Science) course. The curricula of both
have recently been revitalized to ecphasize environmental aspects.

in-service courses are being organised for various levels,
f^^^^ver, each more needs to be done. The governmental and volun-
tary agencies could also play a key role in teacher training and
teacher updating.

^e ccBcuftication satellite and GTV are also going to be a
hc«n for the environmental educationist. Mass media has an appeal
to both eld and yoting. Usually children pick up much more from
the media than from their teadier. To make ETV a real instrument

of change I the prograiRnee need to be specific as well as attrac-
tive, so that they draw the attention to local problems and also
advise what actions are possible to overcome these drawbacks. It
can thus not only enlighten, the connunity but also point the way
towards action. NCSRT has started pr^urlng &TV programmesi how->
ever such prograimea need a lot of back-up support from other
agencies both during their development and during their use. The
follow.up action needs the cooperation of all types organization,
so that the progranane can have a real Htassive impact.

This gathering, where representation from many and different
types of organisations from India and abroad, will, t hope, deli-
berate at length on the strategies of implementation of environ-
mental education programmes so that we prepare action-oriented
citizens who will work for the conservation of the environment.

NON-CONVENT I ONAL ENERGY SOURCES FOR
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Maheshwar Dayal*

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Han lives on earth. A deep relationship exists between the
environment on earth and his life. The main factors of environ-*
ment are Biological and Physical. The physical environment con-
sists of land, water and air, bio-sphere provides the food and
other requirements of man. Environment creates favourable condi-
tions for the existence and development of different creatures.
As a noted author has said:

• The great numbers of living species on earth, hundreds
of thousands of hinds of animals and plants, are arranged
over the planet, not at random, but in organised and struc-
tured connunities of living things... Each coirmunity is
distinct. The species within each are tied together, in
intricate net works of energy-flow or pathways of chemical
raw materials from soil, air, and water: through various
plants to various animals .... Disturbance of any part of a
eonnunity affects all parts **

The ecosystems are essentially self-regenerating and self-
sustainable in which different components are interconnected,
interrelated and interdependent. “There is no waste in a natural
scheme of things, as the waste of one species becomes food for
another. The only external input is the sunlight”. But the consi-
derable waste generated by the human species caused environmental
degradation; this throws the life support system out of gear. Our
planet is a vast civilization reserve which needs to be conserved
as a whole at all cost.

The level of economic development and distribution of popula-
tion of any region depends on the relationship between man and
the environment around him, different elements of which are used
for different requirements. Land is used for meeting the food
and raw material supplies. Hater is used for irrigation and power
generation. The use of all these elements should be made while
keeping the ecological balance.

•Secretary, Dept of Non-conventional Energy Sources,
Governcent of India, New Delhi

P-esent Scenario

The Indian envircrjsent ha* been vtetctsaly affected and dee-
trcyed in the last century due -jt> unrestricted felling cf the
fcrests. The ccnsequence* of exce«»tv» def crestaticn are increa-
sing flood*, soil ercsicn, heavy siLtaticn cf dasa built at an
encscua expense, and changes in ttic'c-clieates. in ether ucrda,
a progressive depletion of the ceuntry 8 eeclogiea' bank, driving
It incessantly towards banlamp'cy. Flcod dosage* alone, it i*
estisated, ncv ave»-*ge about P* 1000 crcre* every year. W*iat is
verse in husan te-sa is the increasitvg denial tc a large section
cf the country's population cf fc-es*" prcductc lixe firewood,
v^ieh are v.tal for hjsan survival

Five' water pollution in India ha* reached a pcint cf crisis
The Canga river sysCes has been converted in*© a netwerJc ef
cesspccls and drains due tc the ef'luent* cf industries and
eunieipaltties in th* regicn. The water cf cany ether rivers in
India has been polluted by eeve-age, ir^dustrial wastes and indu*>
trial effluent* irtich have led tc aass fish kille. T'f Ganga,
despite its high «*ir«purif icattcn capacity, is a.'X’Pg India’s
Best polluted rivers. Sticckingly high levels cf pclluticn exist
along vast stretches cf the Tasina river, everyday, it* 48 ka
prrticn chrcugh Delhi pick* up nearly ZOti stllicn litres of
untreated sewage. Twenty culltcn litres ef industrial effluent*
ineluding about half a sdllien litres cf PbT wastes en**r the
Yasuna in this stre'eh. rre« Delhi to kgra, the Yasuna water is
unfit for drinking and bathing,

Mr i* a p*ecieu8 r^tural resource without w*iieh life cannot
be sustained fer acre than a few einutes, yet the cencem fer
clean air and p*etecticn of the atsespSere free daaage by husan
activities is only a recent phencoenen, IhJton activities like
i'lduatriel ir'Odicticn, cctcr transport and cte.rieBtic burning cf
fuels are adding large snount cf har^ul pellucan** to the atino-
sphere, triggering eff a host cf global and regional envxrcnsen-
tal p*cble=3.

Air polluticn reminds cost people ©f high chimey* at factx>-
ries belching out thick clouds cf black stoke. The fact that old
*«aw>r Ann* Anr ffiarrcenr ryntr «fbw tc

polluticn froa saoke inside their heces, is net even generally
knewt-

There are nearly a tullicn setor vehicle* on the road* cf
India. The exhaust fuoes they eait centsin carten rencxid®,
nitrogen cxides, hydrccarbcna, aldehydes and lead-cxide. The
black moke esitted by diesel engines contains sere particulates
than the exhaust of petrol engine* though oth*r pollutants stated
above are less. Carbon Konoxide decreases the capacity cf the
bleed to carry oxygen frea the lung* tc the tissues.

Destruction cf ferest-ccver and trees fer whatever purpose
and reason, have serious repercuasien and deep- rooted effect cn

th* Mvtreraent. populatica explosion* poverty and resultant

need for clearance of large extent of forests endangered irrepla-
ceable life foras (plants and anifials)^ and drive then to the
threshold level of extinction. Our late Priae Minister, Snt.
Indira Gandhi, had rightly observed

•The environaent in which aniaals and plants beccee
extinct 18 not safe for the husan beings either. •

According to the Katienal Fuelwcod study Cooaittee 1982, exsre
t-h«n 4.5 Billion ha of forests are lost tipto 19S0 due to agricul-
tural and other developeenC activities. The fuelwccd reguireaents
which are veil in excess of rate of reforestation and causing
additional leases of forest cover at the rapid rate.

India adopted the Katienal Air (Prevention and control of
Pollution) Act only in 1931. This act vests the authority in the
Central and state Boards for Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution set up under an Act of 1974. These Boards are preparing
to lay ^wn and enforce standards. The Indian Standards Institu-
tion (ISI) has proposed standards for a=bient sir quality in res-
pect of sulphur dioxide and particulate satters. Sulphur dioxide
concentxatien in axbient axr shall not exceed 60 iig/m (0.023
ppo) as annual 24-hour arithaetie laean with 200 pg/n (0.060 ppa)
aet to exceed acre than 2 percent ef the tiae and not on two
consecutive days in a year. The particulate scatter in esbient air
shall net exceed as 24 hours* annual anthaetie eean, 200 wg/Ka
in coastal areas. 300 uq/)b in inland areas, and SOO pq/Ma in
northern areas.

1*cr»al particulate concentrations vary freo 150 to 100 pg/o ,
that observed in coastal areas being up to 150 pg/n , ranging
upto 250 pg/a in inland areas and upto 500 pg/a in the northern
areas (except during dust stones).

For eassiens froa theraal power plants, ISI has recoenended
for particulate natter lizuts ranging frca 250 eg/Ra for new
pulverized coal-fired boilers in urban areas to 1,000 e^/Na for
old Stocker firing boilers. For sulfur dioxide, the recccoended
eaiission liaits is 600 mg/j of enez'gy produced.

Cne can see, even without these figures how auch needs to be
done. Saoking chieneys are the general order, both in our urban
and rural areas. Furtheraore, eaissions froa autoeobiles, buses
and trucks are visibly polluting urban areas in particular, and,
in growing aeasure, the rural areas. This kind of pollution can
be curbed. Reasonable air quality can be achieved with
relatively aodest addition or icproveoent to equipaent and by
of equipoent. In fact, air pollution often
faults froa iaco^lete cesbustion, and reducing etaission will
^**^"^* ^***1 efficiency. Thus, erergy cost reduction and environ-
■estal quality can be had by the ease action.

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES AKO ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

AH form* of conventional energy sources viz. Coal, oil,
hydro and nuclear have environnental ramifications. In eoal-based
energy plants (power and industrial boilers) the environment has
to be taken into account at the extraction, transport and genera-
tion stages. In the open-cast mining of coal, rehabilitation of
the land is feasible and its cost lew relative to the value of
the coal mired. A proper underatanding of the need for such reha-
bilitation can ensure that it is invariably done and pre-planned.

A maior problem with thermal power generation la that of air
pollution by stock exhausts. It is necessary to lay down and en-
force air guality standards, setting of standards is difficult
bince scientific information about the effects of air pollution
on human health is not adequate. In seme countries standards have
been relaxed. For example, the nitrogen oxide standard in Japan
has been raised from 0.02 ppm to a range of 0.04 to Q.06 ppm
because of a feeling that the latter levels may not be harmful to
health whereas the cost of attaining the lower level would be
extremely high. SiRtlarly, in the OdA, antilyaiB of dose response
data and costs of achieving more stringent standards has led to
the raising of the standards from 0.06 ppm (0 hours' averaae) to
0.12 ppm.

This brings us to the need for proper evaluation of benefits
and costs, even though rough approxinations may be possible, in
some eases, damage or less of benefits nay greatly exceed pollu-
tion control cost and also be large by themselves. In other cases
the cost of pollution control may be substantial and yet achieve
little additional benefits. However, such analysis can at least
provide a basis for the choice of technology.

Electrical energy generation by hydro-electric power plants
is non-polluting, and uses a renewable source of energy. However,
there are several problems associated with the construction of
giant dans on natural waterways. The construction of such dams
alters the downstream ecology ss veil as that in the lake area
behind the dam. Huge areas get submei^ed, flora, fauna or any
agricultural produce of this land get affected, people and towns
in this area have to be removed and re-allocated, causing distur-
Janmo* Auf ^ meC' ri mr itartMtips. Xgsitt *fte time. tsAen i"or suefi large
schemes to fructify is usually quite long. For these reasons,
increasing thought is now being given to supplement such large
projects with inore simII sire hydroprojeets called nuni-hydel or
lucro-hydel , which can be built on small streams and even on
canals, without large dams.

Nuclear energy can be obtained both through fusion and the
fission processes. Enormous amounts of energy is released from
small quantities of fuel in both Uiese processes e.g. , one ton of
Uranium can theoretically yield energy equivalent to about three
million tonnes of coal. The problem of disposal ofthe radioactive

wastes which create environmental problems and possibilities of
accident leading to release of radio-activity have, however,
caused concern and opposition in some quarCf^'s. Scientific work
IS continuing or. both these aspects.

NON-CONVEMTIOVAL ENERGY SOURCES

The* ncn-conventional sources of energy like solar, wind, bio-
mass, etc.i are of vital importance for the present situation of
energy crisis in third world and for protection of environment.
The non-conventional energy sources are non-polluting and non-
exhausting in nature. The Department of tJoh-Conventional Energy
Sources (DUES) pregransnes stress the creation and strengthening
of indigenous scientific and technological efforts in this area,
and also the need for creation of proper delivery systems and
extension services and removal of non-techmcal constraints and
i.istitutronal or cultural barriers that hamper the wide diffusion
of mature non-pollutjnc technologies. Besides a proper infrastru-
cture t'here la the need lor appropriate econorhic poVicvee and
fiscal incentives to encourage and provide pack-up to scientific
and technological advances in this area.

Noh-Conventional energy technologies afe ideally suited for
decentralized or amall-scaie energy supply eyatems wnich are par-
ticularly relevant for India's rural agricultural economy. The
Government has embarked upon a major well co-ordinated effort to
harness and develop non-conventional ener^ sources. Although
certain technologies were known, recent developments have broad-
ened their applicability, reduced costs and improved efficien-
cies. Many technologies have reached the stage of maturity, that
is, they can be applied economically itv a coiwnercial manner, and
on a large scale, particularly in rural and remote areas. The
approach paper to the Seventh Plan approved at the highest level,
has included the development of non-conventional energy sources
as one of the priority areas.

Biogas 16 one of the most important components of renewable
energy supplies today. A by-product of biogas le a very valuable
enriched fertilizer. Its other benefits include reduction in
demand for fuelwood, improvement in sanitation, reduction in the
incidence of eye diseases among village women and easy and effi-
cient cooking and thereby reducing the drudgery in women's life
thus making their time available for creative and developmental
activities. Versatility is one of the greatest merits of biogas.
It can be used for cooking, Iightii^, or for generation of power.
It can be produced from a large variety of materials ranging from
cattle, human and agricultural wastes and water hyacinth to

indusCrials effluents.

At present, there are already nore than 27&,000 fasuly type
biogas plants wrrJcing if) the Country. cecputing an average size
4 cu.n gas per plant, these are p-cducing S lakhs cu.n gas per
day 4.hich IS equivalent to 240 nsillion cu.n gas per anrura or 44
aillicn litres of kerosene oil valued at alxut Rs. 26.5 creres
per year. In this financial year alone 150,000 plants are being
installed vhich will save about £00,000 t/yr of fuelwcod equiva-
lent and provide clean cooking conditions in villages throughout
the rpurtry.

There are 14 ercre households in this country. Nearly 80% of
then use wood and/or cow dung for generating cooking energy. The
Chulhas (stores) which are used for this purpose are inefficient.
It has been calculated that if the efficiency of traditional
chulhas IS raised by just 1% treo the present level, it will
result in annual saving of 4 (oillion tonnes of wood. The Depart-
ment has recently launched a programe for the de"cnstration and
installation of improved chulhas which airs at setting up 5 lakh
chulhas during the current pian period. These chulhas will have
an efficiency of 1S-2S% as against the 2-10% efficiency ef tradi-
tional chulhas. The potential impact of these chulhas can be
easily iiaagined. The improved models are both portable and fixed
and have been chosen with a view to acceptability in the user
ccmunity as well as efficiency* It is proposed to launch a ouch
nore nassive pregrame in this area in the seventh Plan.

Solar Diergy

That sun in the source of practically ail energy on the earth
need not be e-phasiced. It is however surprising how often we
tend to forget this basic fact of life on this earth.

While biogas derives specific energy from the sun in an
indirect cOTplicated manner; involving many principles of nucrc^
biology, solar theimal, and solar photovoltaic devices and ayateiB
Biake use of the cun in a more direct nanner. At present in this
country, solar thermal systems are available for large scale use
in the following areas: water heating, air heating, air drying,
water desalination and solar cooking. Temperatures upto 100*C are
easily obtainable in these dev'ices, depending on the syatea.

The Government has supported, financially and otherwise, a
large nurmber of solar heating systems in the country. For example,
a solar water heating system of a capacity 50,000 litres has been
completed recently at Lodhi Hotelin Delhi. A 30 tonnes multipur-
pose solar drier was ccmissioned recently in Kerala. A tea
drying plant using solar energy and waste heat was installed
recently at Tocfclai in Assam. Similar plants for coffee and toba-
cco are under construction. Solar water heating systems have been
installed in public and private industries all over the country*
It IB proposed to give a sajor thrust to all the solar energy

systems during the current year* and spread them far and wide in
the country during the seventh plan.

One of the most successful application of solar water heating
16 found in the textile industry. Lead was taken by a textile
mill in Ahmedabad to be followed by number of other heating and
drying systems to be installed in a big way in the next 2-3 years
in hospitals, hotels, textile industries, tea industry, distille-
ries etc. Contrary to general feeling the solar heat/drying sys-
tems are cheap as compared to conventional systems. They are also
easy to maintain.

Solar Photo-Voltaic Systems

Solar photovoltaic systems can convert the energy of the sun
directly into electricity. This is a high technology area. There
are sons problems relating to the naterials to be used as medium
for such conversions and the percentage output of electricity as
a function of the total solar radiation received. Kagh level PSD
efforts are going on in the country to solve these problems in a
more effective manner. At present technologies are available to
enable 9-11% output in terms of electricity as a function of the
tolar radiation received by the system. This nay net sound very
high, but It should be reseoibered that an ordinary ineandeseent
bulb uses only about 3% of the energy it consuaes. An internal
eombusticn engine does not use more than 30% of the energy it
consumes. Solar photovaltaie devices are at present expensive but
the costs are expected to come down in the next 5-6 years. Even
now these are quite ccmpetitive for remote areas and special
locations. Solar photovoltaic systems are being used in the
country for a viiriety of purposes including water pumping, street
lighting, cconunication, powering television, radio sets etc.

The Department of non-ccnventional energy sources is running
presently a National Solar Photovoltaic Energy Demonstration
Prograxcae achieve a production capacity of one MW (obtained) per
year by Sept. 1585. By that tisie BHCL, Bangalore, would also at-
tain a capacity of 250 KH (electricity) per year. It is proposed
to give a ma^or boost to the solar photovoltaic prograsiae in the
current year and make it a substantive contributor to rural
electrification of rraote villages in the 7th Plan. R4D in this
area is proposed to be particularly esgjhasized including work on
amorphous silicon cells and'modules, ribbon silicon cells and
modules, etc., so as to reduce the present high costs.

Wind Energy

Indian potential for harnessing wind energy is not as great
as the size of the country would lead us to imagine. However,
there are large coastal and other areas where wind energy can be
usefully exploited for pumping water and electricity generaUon.

goo wind punpa have been insCalled under Demonstration Prograsne
In the country by the department eo far. It is expected that by
the end cf the current year more than 1 ,000 wind puitips installed.
The Gavernaent provides handscme support to the wind pump user by
bearing entire cost of the mechanical syfitem, leaving the cost of
civil work to be borne by the beneficiary. E>:tension prograjme
for water pumping wind mile le proposed to be taiken up shortly.
In the seventh plan, the extension progranrne will be enlarged
greatly.

Snail capacity generators or Mind Energy Conversion System
(VfECS as they are called) have been developed in the country and
are being field tested.

Indigenous manuraeture of some low capacity systems may also
start in the near future. Mind farms of upto 5 HM capacity are
planned for the known windy locations in India. Wind monitoring
stations and development of prototypes of medium sized wind gene-
rators will be taken up at a wind energy centre, being establish-
ed by the Department and the CSIR.

Certain Government Departments like Railways and Posts and
Telegraphs have made small but definite steps forward in the use
of wind energy and solar energy in their installations.

Energy Prom Urban Wastes

A na^or thrust has been given to various prograime for gene-
ration of energy frea urban wastes. These progranree Include power
genersCien through ineineration. pyrolysis, landfills and genera-
tion of gas from sewage. The Priste Minister recently announced
the setting up of a Central Canga Authority, which will overeee
the ifflplesientatlon of a plan aiming at providing the basic faci-
lities of sewage treatment coupled with recovery systems for
fuels and fertilizers, for major cities and towns like Calcutta,
Allahabad, Varanasi, Kanpur, Patna, on the Ganga river syatem.
Large-scale generation of biogas for ^oduction of power and or
doirestic fuel Iron sewage are proposed to taken up in these
cities, other cities in different parts of the country will also
be provided with this facility depending on financial allocation.
Work on an experimental project for incineration of 300 milion
tonnes of solid wastes per day and generation of 3.1A Ktf power
has already been started in Delhi.

Energy Plantation, Power Generation and Environment

One of the important methods of insulating ther country
against impending disaster is to take to the Phctosynthetic Model
of development through large-scale use of bioniass, particularly
firewood. Such an option, apart from meeting energy needs would
help to restore the relationship between man and hie environment.
Therefore, a vei^ massive tree plantation progranme is necessary

both for energy needs and overall eco-developr>ent. Prune Minister-
Shri Rajiv Gandhi in his first address to the nation declared the
constitution of Wasteland Developstient Board to cover at least S
nu^llion ha of wasteland annually. In our country, the shortfall
in firewood production by 2000 AD has been estimated at 137 null,
tonnes, irtiich would require 34 mill, ha of land, at about fcxjr
oven-dry tonnes wood per ha/year, and a minimua annual outlay of
Rs 500 crores for 17 years to be made good. Once such a prcgrawne
IS successful, dung and plant-based residue would be available as
organic fertiliser and as industrial feed stock, respectively.

Among the renewable alternatives, solar energy, captured by
the plants through the process of photosynthesis, is the most
iirportant, especially because photosynthesis is the key process
in the life-suppcrt system of this planet. Furthemore, the
plan^'-based energy systems are not only renewable but they re-ncve
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere before ttiming it back with no
overall quantitative increase, as also help to contain envircnme-
ntal pollution. Photosynthesis is at the base of all biomass
production and food chains. It converts physical energy into
chemical energy and generates oxygen, Che life sustaining gas.
Whereas net photosynthesis uses only O.iv of sunlight it produces
organic matter of which only 10% accounts for the total energy
used by mankind and only 0.5% accounts for the entire food requi-
rement of the human race. Increase in photosynthetic efficiency
automatically increases production of organic matter. Various
types of biomass and/cr bio-fuels available are: firewood, agri-
cultural alcohol, vegetable oil, hydrocarbon planes, particularly
those yielding rubber and petroleum like materials; fresh weeds,
sewage-grown algae, algal hydrocarbons and biologically produced
hydrogen using halebacteria, algae, Azolla and even higher
plants. Every feedstock or bioccnversion process has its own
merits and demerits, and the different routes available to gene-
rate solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are: anaerobic and enzymatic
digesting and Chennochemical conversion.

Biomass may not be panacea for all our energy problems but
it will, no doubt, help to reduce substantially our dependence on
fossil fuels. Being socially and environmentally relevant, bio-
mass enables us to keep our air, water and land clean, and manage
our life support system in a sustained manner. Two things are
needed: first, in view of our country being predominantly agricu-
ltural, a perceptible tilt in favour of plants and plant sciences
in our planning process by adoption of the Photosynthetic Model
of Development, and secondly, India has to be made increasingly
^wener. Tatssng otner linings, suctv a model envisages revegetating
the uncultivated half of India to make the country fresh and
vez-dant. This would have distinct enviroinmental, social and eco-
nomic benefits and will help in many ways.

The Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DWES) has
planned to set up a chain of Biomass Research Centres in the

country. mccrgradatlcn af production^ convernion, utilisation
and conservation of woody biomass is an important feature of this
progranne. It has been proposed to cower 1.5 million ha of sub-
standard soilo under energy plantation during Seventh Five Year
Plan {1995-90).

It has been estimated that about 1000 ha can generate about 3
KW of power, besides providing fuelwood or chai'coal which can
support the energy needs of a population of 12S to 150 families.
In India, even if cne-fifth of the estimated 80 million ha of
barren and waste land can be covered b/'such a programne, a
generation capacity of about 48.000 MM can be created, which is
considerably more than the entire installed power capacity In the
country today from all thennal. hydro and nuclear sources.
Moreover, power from energy plantations could be made available
from a number of decentralised inatallations to minimise trarsmi-
esion and distribution coats. This would also provide fuelwood
and charcoal to meet cecking needa of the rural poor, provide
green biomass cover in area zones and raise rural incomes. The
investment cost for such projects could Be only about Rb. 12,000
per KW.

According to a calculation, the coat of electricity produced
in such a prograirme would be about Rs. 0.87 per kw hr. assuming
capital costs of local generation of Rs. 12,000 per kw. fuelwood
18 priced at Rs. SO per quintal. OtH costs as Rs. 0,10. an annual
cspacity factor of 0.50 and a rate of return of 0.12. If the fuel
wood is priced at Rs. 25 per quintal (since it is available next
to the power unit), the cost of eleetiicity comes down to Rs.
0.52 per kw hr. This can be favourably compared to a cost of Rs.
0.96 per kw hr for electricity from a central power station, to a
village having a load of 20 kw. and at a distance of 10 km from
the grid, these costs increase to Rs l.ll per kw hr at a distance
of 20 km, and Rs. 1.26 per at a distance of 30 km from the grid.
Thus power from energy plantations is a very promising option for
substantial piower needs.

Biomass Gasifier

Partial combustion of wood with air yields gaseous mixture
capable of prtxlucing gas which can be burnt in boilers designed
for liquid for gaseous combustion, and engines after purification.
There are a veriety of applications where this technology has
far-reaching impact particularly for irrigation, crop drying,
dairies and chilling centres, rural electrification and sawmills.

Adequate supply of water is one of the major limitations to
boost up food production of afforestation prograimes. 'During 6th
plan. It 18 envisaged to energise 25 lakhs irrigation wells. The
energy for lift irrigation can be obtained only from firewood
which implies emphasis on energy plantation. With fast-growing
tree species irrigation can triple production to that obtained

under rainfed conditions. The approach of combining biomass pro-
duction and gasification will result in many benefits, viz.
wasteland utilisation, energy supply and generation of employment
potential. This would help the farmer to be energy-independent
and free from shortage of diesel and electricity. Supply of water
from tubewells will help in increasing yeild even in non-irriga-
ted areas with poor and unreliable rainfall. There are many
potential areas for its application but the success depends upon
the development of small-scale gasifiers (5-20 hp) based on wood
and agrieutural residues available in the country.

Other Sources of Energy

Water can be used for power generation even from the low and
ultra-low heads available in canals, flowing streams in hills,
river slopes, small irrigation dams, etc. Research and Develop-
ment and pilot programmes have been taken up by the Department in
these areas. Work is also being carried out on improving the
designs of hydrams and water milla. Ocean thermal gradient
energy, wave and tidal energy are yet another potential sources
for coming years. A feasibility report is being prepared for
setting up a one megawatt ocean thermal energy conversions pilot
plant in Lakehdeep island, which envisages production of power
and aquaculture based on nutrient rich cold water, from the deep
sea. Research and Development Projects on production, storage ana
utilization of hydrogen energy geothermal based cold storage
systems and fuel cells are also being taken up. Proto-types of 3-
and 4-wheeler battery powered vehicle have been developed and are
undergoing field perfcmance tests.

ROLE OP ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The world Environment Day is observed every year on June 5
with a view to arousing the masses and bringing the environmental
issues to the forefronts of thinking and planning and also to
remember this mother earth, the only environment we have to take
s*cck of i*s great capacity to assure all, of the lasting prospe-
rity, The citizens role in environmental protection needs no
specia] emphasis. The fight against environmental degradation is
not the only concern of the scientists, engineers or government
ajencies. but to be readily effective, it has to be an issue of
everybody's concern. Much of the success in environmental preser-
vation in advanced nsfjriafi, am due tip A'fd

meat of enlightened eitizen-action groups debating on public
forums, environmental issues like felling trees, construction of
dams and location of nuclear power plants. The recent controversy
over the Silent Valley project and the 'CHIPCO-MOVEMENT' in
Himalayas in India (Almcra Hills) is a welcome sign of people’s

Pradeshi dedicatf^ to pret^ting our tre^s and wild aniirals. The
recent 'chipko' movement trtiich emanated from Chainolx> in the
inner Himaiayaa, is another fitrilung re/lecCior of thia concern
in the minde of the people.

Forests as an Important Facet of Environment

The importance of forests in the welfare of makind cannot be
ever-emphasised. In whatever the forests fulfil, the touchstone
and measure of their value is human weal and satisfaction. Late
Shri K.M. Hunshi defined its role Beautifully in the words,
“There is a balance on earth between air, water, soil and plant.
Trees have a great place in the ecenroy of nature. They hold up
the tiountains, cushion the rain and storrs. They discipline the
rivers and control the floods. They -raintain the springs, they
brealc the winds, they foster the birds. They keep the air cool
and clean. They are the guardians of the perennial springs of
water. They are the natural defenders of dust storms. They check
erosion by wind and water and they preserve the fertility of the
soil".

The future of mankind is inextricably linked with forests,
both as a national resource and as the strength behind a healthy
environment. The ecological perspective has to embrace diverse
aspects ranging from sustenance linkages of the rural cenenunitiea
and the deoands of a developing econeny to the dictates of scien-
tific management assuring sustainable utilisatirn of the national
resource.

Nature has lavisnly endowed our country with a rich biotic
heritage, with nearly 5% of all known plant and animal apeeiea
found cn the earth. Oure flora and fauna include about 13,Q0Q
species of flowering plants, 30,000 species oj insects, 10,500
species of molluscs and other invertebrates, 2000 species of
fish, 140 species of amc^ibians, 4Z0 species of reptiles, 1200
species of birds and 340 species of naxmals, besides a vast
variety of oceanic fauna. No other country in the world, area for
area, excels India, in the variety of its biological reserves.

The Forest Crisis

Despite our rich and hoary tradition in nature conservation,
and the need to preserve our forests inviolate, there have been
many factors which have proved ininical. The grim reality is,
India with as high as t5\ of the human and 14% of the cattle
population of the world, has barely 2% of forests of the globe.
The enortnoua and relentless pressure on our diminishing forests
la therefore at once manifest. Nevertheless, cf late, there has
been a general awakening to protect our forests, which are virtu-
ally under a seige. Ihis awakening however has to be translated
into reality, "one touch of nature, makes the whole world kin"

says Shakespeare.

It would be pertinent to recall an apt observation by UNESCO
on the 'environment crisis''! which is as follws:

"Imperfect understanding of the natural mechanisms which
make possible the maintenance of life on earth; disregard
of the unintentional effects of technology! m particulalri
the various forma of pollution; poor management of the
soil, forests and water, unbridled consumption of fossil
fuels, uncontrolled urbanisation, the relegaticn of the
rural population to a marginal position, and the crushing
of traditional cultures - these are the most obvious and
most frequent disadvantages of the change that is taking
place in the relations between man and his environment,"

In this context, we need to ponder, as to hew we could achieve
material progress, without impairing the environment. Our late
Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi, in her stirring address in
'912 at the United Nations conference on Human Envircnment at
btrckholm, advocated I'Development without Destruction", as the
cardinal principle of planning. Being sensitive to the harm that
thoughtless and unimaginative economic development can cause to
the environment, through reckless destruction of forests and the
resul'-ing problems of soil erosion and floods, sne was perceptive
tr the supreme importance of conservation in planning, bike a
seer, she drew upon the fountain of wisdom and insight, from our
ancient culture, to rivet attention to nature being imperilled by
despoliation.

Permanent Needs the Forests Fulfill

The following are the paramount needs of the country which
the forests are required to fulfil,

- Maintenance Of environmental stability through preserving and
where necessary restoring the ecological balance that has been
adversely disturbed by an insufficient appreciation of the role
of forests and consequently their rapid depletion,

- Conservation of what remains of the natural heritage of the
country through preserving the existing natural forests along
with their vast variety of flora awi fauna which represent the
tremendcus biological diversity and genetic resources of the
coun*ry

- Checkina denudation and soil erosion in the catchment areas of
rivers in the interests of soil and water conservation, the
preventicn ff floods as well as droughts and for the control of
the premature siJtation of costly reservoirs;

~ Checking ero3i&n along treeleas banks of riv?rs» in thp hot and
cold deserts of Thar and Ladakh and their environs: on large
stretches of waste lands in the hilly and drier parts or the
country: on areas denuded cf vegetation by shifting cultivation
and on barren sea shores ■

- Safeguarding and sustaining the welfare of tribal connunities
which are alcmsC entirely dependent on the use of various forest
resources. Senerating productive employnent for the larce number
cf unemployed and under-eirployed people in the rural sector in
programnes of afforestaticn of degraded lands, whether Government
or privately owned, and the need for generating fcreet-basea
employment for rural artisans,

- Generating productive employment for the large number of
unemployed and under-employed people in the rural sectrr in
progra.Tmes of aforestaticn of degraded lands, whether Ccivernment
or privately owned, and the need frr grnrrating forest-based
employment for rural artisans,

- Meeting rerquirements cf fuelwo<,d. fe,oder, minor forest produce
and small timber for the rural and tribal populations primarily
thrwgh the afforestation of all denuded and degraded lands,
regardless of their classification;

- Eliminating the pressure of industry on natural forests through
the afforestaticn of all denuded and degraded lends,

- encouraging more eff Jefent use of forest resrurces by all
sectors of society?

- Providing amenities for recreation and conservation education
in urban and rural enyironnents: and

- Creating a people's movement for achieving these objectives.

agriculture. In order to catch up vith the deaands of e-ploynsent
generation in other sectors, developnent of urban settlements is
isperetive. The histone lag in develcpnent created by the
colonial exploitation needs to be cade up in a few decades.
Industrialisation in west took place over a span of centunea.
Thus the effects of the ills of industrial process was ironed out
to aooe extent. However, the rapid pace of developnent enjoined
by India within a short span of Cioe has resulted in untold
tsisery. Slums have cone up around eepleysent centres, same of
which produce toxic and poisonous wastes, endangering lives. The
housing construction has not been able to keep pace with popula-
tion influx, resulting in slums, squatter settlenents and shanty
towns. Although no conclusive study has been undertaken, it nay
be reasonably assuoed that unplanned slums and squatter settle-
»nts outnumber planned housing. The evolving pattern of settie-
Dents and the structure of its distribution needs to respond to
the national demand.

The growth of population by another 300 rullion and the need
to develop ecployment ir areas other than agriculture would
deaand a changed outlook in aettleoenC planning, The traditional
classification of town and country lAuld no longer appear to be
valid. If the present trends are any indication, the larger urban
settleasnts are growing at a faster rate resulting in few pockets
of human ooneentratien. Cities tike Borbay and Calcutta no
longer stand for human excellence in its ability to shape nature
but are pictures of abject oisery. The misery inflicted by the
ever increasing pull generated by such large centres at the
expense of all ether settleoents in ite influence region prevents
growth of all other centres and creates a regional icbalance. Of
326S urban centres in India only 12 are Detropolises and of these
only 2 are over 10 isillion population. But in another 15 years we
may have 20 or core Mtropoliees and S or 6 super netropolises.
Vhat kind of aettlenent pattern will it give? Hill it p-ovide
for a vast country like India? Can we afford to distinguish bet-
ween settlements only on the criterion of size class? Or do we
have to look beyond the rather arbitrary classification into a
Bore dynamo order of aettle-ient pattern.

First of all, hman settlements need to be treated as an
asset, brought about by human reason and endeavour, and aa such,
needs to be respected. Econonic class, occupational pattern are
products of various factors, and they need not be used as deter-
Binarits. Interdependency of settlenents should be accepted irres-
pectiie of Size. This pattern of interdependency over a spatial
frame sheuld be the concern. To sustain the population judicious
and innovative exploitation of the resources is urperative. The
spread of resources vary from area to area, region to region. A
set of settlenents need to be treated as part of a resource
region, and ecosysten. Population and activities need to be dis-
tributed in a way that it allows, exploitation of resources within

the BUBtenance capacity of the ecosystem.

The key-word is suBtainabie developcvent. Development can only
be sustained when it keeps pace with the rising expectation of
the population. Rise in expectation is synonynoua to growth.
Efficient public transportt and perhaps efficient personal trans-
port cannot any rere be denied by provision of more mundane op-
tions. Similarly the technological options available for enrich-
ing the quality of life are likely to be in greater preference.
Rural population who constitute the majority are likely to demand
aaaie level of amenities and facilitiea as an urbanite. The
distinction between rural and urban in terns of the standard of
living must get blurred with tine. Perhaps a fair distribution in
the order of settlements is called for. While ordering the
pattern of human settlements one should bear in mind that a
compatibility between ecological balance and the technological
options is ensured.

The doubling of urban population between the decades of 60* s
and 60's and the forecasted doubling of the urban population of
1980's by 2001 is likely to put a severe strain on the seCtle-
eents. The WBO estimated in 1980 that there were a shortage of
4.6 Billion housing units in urban areas and 16.1 million in
rural areas. The same study also estimated that 17.9% of the
urban population lived in alums. The available housing stock is
also of poor quality. 41.72% of the urban households live in
ene-rooa accosDodatien and 28.00% of then lived in Cwo-roon
aeeoBnodatien. The situation is worse in large urban centres.

In erderto accomodate the rising population in urban centres
a massive progranne of housing needs to be undertaken. But if we
adopt 'standard housing' as a technique the cost figure would be
between 1000 billion, which is well beyond the resource of the
country. The availability of materials for construction of 'stan-
dard housing' would require rise in steel output by 3 to 7 times,
bricks by 4 to 8 times, and would require consumption of 4.2
Billion acres of additional land for habitation purposes. Under
the overwhelffling circumstances can we continue to take traditional
approach to solve the gigantic problem facing ua.

The practice of planning for human settlements has been based
on the British model of controlling developraent. But the essen-
tial difference between India and Britain is that the development
in Britain is generated by pressure for development, and there-
fore, plan Is needed to control over- cr injurious development.

Whereas m India there is need to promote development to
eradicate the imbalance In spatial distribution of population and
settlements and also to ensure equity in the standard of develop-
Bent and living, in India the pressiire for development is high
''kere development is costly and socially injurious. The high
private sector inveatatenfc* in large cities like Bombay,
Calcutta, Delhi, etc. and investment in posh housing manifest the
trend and attitude. Private capital is scarce in areas which need

develepmenc to uolift them from the morass of poverty and baek-
vardness.

Unfortunately the national plannlft>j objectives have poor
spatial bias, and have ret provided adequate guidance for spatial
distribution of opportunities and facilities. There is urgent
need to arrive at the spatial pattern In the distribution of
settlements, order their hierarchy, assess their need and demand,
and allocate resource on a progcamroed and co-ordinated basis.

VTiile the spatial orgatvieaeion of settlements have a low pri-
ority in national planning, the settlements are growing in an un-
planned Rvanner, consuming fertile land, destroying forests, crea-
ting problems of erosion of land, sitlation of of lakes and river
beds in an unchecked orgy towards destruction. More vulnerable
settlements are reaching a atate where the esciatence of the
aecciemenc itself is threatened. Spatial planning concerns itself
With the task of identifying on ground the area to he developed
for various purposes. The characteristics of the land and its
resources achieve their full dimension and the implications of
investirent decisions become apparent at the tine of translation
of a decision to reality. Decisions, however well mtencioned,
arrived at without considering the realities of space, land and
its physical attributes, population and its societal structure,
the interelationship between various settlements over Land,
create inefficiency. One of thenain reasons of partial success
of the Piseal Planning has been its dissociation with spatial
planning. Tr elaborate, a pesticides factory is necessary for
increased food production. But merely the finance or knowhow of
pesticides manufacture is not enough. The location, the mieroeli*
mate, geology, hydrology, landuee pattern of the area are also
serious concerns to be taken note of. When these are ignored,
you end up with a tragedy like that of Bhopal. One could go on
citing exan^les of non-spatial planning in this country, the
consequence of which has been rather serious,

India 18 a country of historic cities, ho other country can
match India in historic rich heritage of settlement pattern. Yet
it 15 an area which has received very little attention. All our
ancient cities, some of which date back to more than thousand
years, are today subject to destruction by the process of relent-
less unplanned development. Ancient cities like Hardwar, Pushkar,
Jeiaafmer, are wonders of arohitectural genious of people. Any
other country would have taken great car© to conserve them. For-
tunately. the late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi was and our
present Prime Minister is alive to the issues of conserving the
cultural and historic heritage. However, these settleirents can be
saved only by a totality of conservation approach, rather than by
piecemeal efforts of preservation.

The School of Planning and Architecture, Kew Delhi, concerns
Itself with the task of training professionals in the field of
spatial planning and physical development. Through courses in

various di8ciplines> the students are trained to understand and
appreciate the various facets of environmental issues. Case
studies are undertaken of areas serious environmental concern and
approapriate solutions are sought. The School has endeavoured to
put up a small exhibition by drawing upon samples of work carried
on in the School to provide some ideas of the nature of studies
undertaken.

The exhibition tries to project the environmental problems
faced by settlements such as Nainital, Pushkar and Bangalore, all
of which are dependent on natural ecological balance for sustena-
nce. The denudation of the resources by human activities such as
defoerestation, building on unstable Btopes, filling up of exist-
ing waterbodies for making more land available for settlements is
resulting in danger of landslides, siltatioi? of lake, drying up
of water resources. Similarly the natural and man made environ-
ment suitable for settlement by other species of animal and plant
life are being invaded by the human beings, thereby destroying
the habitat and its environment. Kan made built environments of
histone cities like Hardwar and Jaisalmer are threatened by
unsystematic development, thus slowly obliterating the heritage
of thousands of years. These and siany issues are projected in the
exhibition.

The complex pattern of interaction between man and his set-
tlement, needs of sustenance and the environment requires careful
analysis and understanding. Unfortunately the education on the
environmental issues is considered to be appropriate for the
mature trained mind. from the very ancient timee however, the
societal behavloui pattern was in harmony with the environment
and every man knew his relationship with nature and respected it.
It IS necessary that the same kind of tatent understanding is
brough about from a tender age. While the techniques of control
and prevention require mature technologist, the environmental
deterioration is not entirely the products of unplanned develop-
ment alone. Our cities look dismal because of the attitude of the
inhabitants who care very little. Garbage is littered all over
the place, buildings are not painted, public transports are not
cleaned regularly. Simple sense of hygiene could provide us with
a cleaner environment. Whereas average Indian has a sense of
personal cleanliness, he is generally careless about environmen-
tal hygience which affects the comnunity. There is need to bring
about greater awareness of comnninity hygiene and inculcate this
sense from the early childhood. The education system has a role
to play in this regard.

Similarly the sense of aesthetics is a product of environmen-
tal concern. Sense of aesthetics is a cultivated art. Villages
in some parts of India are rich m aesthetic quality which is a
product of the live concern of the people living there. But the
®^ky, is an anonymous agglomeration of people who do not share
the same concern for the aesthetic environment. Therefore the

educatifinal proceae has a defanate role to pla/ an developing the
aesthetic sense an people laving in urban area.

In the end I would liJte to conclude by identifying a few
ca^or areas of concern whi^ are as the following:

1. There is need to recognise settlements within a spatial frame
of ecology, resource, ranpower and opportunictes and order their
growth through planned Intervention and financial assistance to
encourage and achieve a rational diatribution of population,
fscllltties and a.’aenitles, and eirploysent. The national planning
taust seriously eoneemitself with spatial allocation ofresources.

2. In doing eo the austenance capacity of the environment of
every settlervnt for supporting optucal population and activaties,
level of maintenance and coneervacion of resources need to be
tahen special note of. It is alao very important to give due
welghtage to the rising expectaclona for a higher standard of
living. ho planing in a developing country can succeed without
Retching the expectations with achievement.

3. Environmental edusation need to be given priority from a
tender age i.e. at the level of elementary schools. The present
educational systeto has sorne bias towards environnental education,
but this needs to be enlarged. Professional courses, however,
has to be rc>«ricnted to provide a far greater bias towards the
understanding of environmental issues, impart training to adegua*
tely deel with environmental problem, institutions which are in a
position to impart such training needs encouragement and support.

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS

tergam R. Biswis* and Asit K. Biswas**

Slightly fforfr than a decade ago, in June t9T2, the United
Nations convened a major intergovernmental conference on the
Human Environment at Stockholm, Sweden. It was undoubtedly the
most important environmental event of an international character
that took place during the past two decades and to a great extent
set into motion a process through which international issues and
concerns were to be discussed, reviewed and analysed.

When the Stockholm Conference was first proposed by Sweden
in 1968, the industrialized countries in general reacted favour-
ably. This is not surprising since interest in environmental
issues in those countries was high. The activities of numerous
citizens' groups and non-govemittental organizations continually
focussed the attention of the general public end politicians to
deteriorating environmental situations. Many groups took the
streeta to protest, and especially In the United states, environ-
ment and Vietnam became two of the major issues with which the
youth rebelled against the establishment. These pressure groups
and several scientists started to publicise critical and emerging
environmental issues, some real and ethera not so. At the crest
of the envirormtent movement, the Barth Cay attracted an estimated
20 million participants in the United States alone.

In contrast to the favourable disposition of the indutrial-
ised countries, the reactions of developing countries to the
Stockholm Conference when it was first announced, were mixed, and
the favourable reactions were lukewann at best (Biswaa and Biswas
1962). Interest in the environmental concerns were not as high as
in the West, and thete was a general feeling that the environmen-
tal problems were less of a priority compared to the real prob-
lems facing them, alleviation of poverty.

By the time the Stockholm conference took place, many of the
initial concerns asnd doubts expressed by developing countries
were alleviated sufficiently for them to participate in the
gathering. This turned out to be fortuitous since the Soviet
Union and the rest of the Eastern Block of nations (with the
exception of Romania) did not take part because of the conflict
over the status of East Germany. Eventually 113 nations partici-
pated.

The Stockholm Conference agreed on a Declaration and an
Action Plan. The Declaration consisted of a Proclamation and 26

* Caiiioi College, Oxford University, Oxford, V.K.

** President, InternstionalSociety for Ecological Modelling,
Oxford, U K

princiolfrs. Th* procla^-ation vas BWT'^hat aPnaral anfl rut tnan
fimly as the central focu^ of any rq«atier> by stating cateoon-
cally that "of all thlncs in the world, p<*ople are the rrcsl pre-
CJCU6“ ,

Tlie Conference uni3oubtedly raised the envireninental eon-
ficiousness of the vorld and sensitized public opinion. The
Confemce itself and the sir-ultaneoua Enwiron-ertal Foru*^, orqa-
nlzed by eniircnffierjta) pressure oroups and other non-aovcmt'ental
orpaniTations, tooecher constituted one of the laroest interna-
tional qatherinas ever held.

Loolvina bael:i rare than a decade later, the £tock.holn Confe-
rence appears to have been nore of a success than nany realized
at that tire. Its tininq vas nqht it was held when the environ-
nental wover^nt in the West was at its pea's, and developed coun-
tries were willino to provide funds for international environ”^n-
tal protection and ranaaement. It established an institutional
rachineryi United Nations Cnvironr*ent Pro(jra'w*e (UVEP>, as the
enviroranertal conscience of the tN system and also to look after
the events followma the Conference.

Many of the na^or environnental trends of the present and of
the future, for exarple. ecoloaical disturbances caused by the
pursuit cf short-tein benefits an the develop^nt process, resou-
rce arrpeverishment, and environmental decradation as a result of
population growth, are not new, but have long been reeoonised as
serious probletra. hhat is new, however, is the accelerating pace
and scale of the problews. New. too, is the reooonition of their
interrelationships, which mean that they ear be understood and
dealt with only within the overall framework of the web of causes
end effects that bind them together. It also means that they can
not be resolved by further fine tunino of traditional responses.
In this sense they are of a wholly new character and require not
only better understanding and developnvnt of new attitudes and
perceptions, but also new modes of siaTisgement responses, a fact
that was clearly recognised at the stocW'olm Conference.

The various environmental issues will be discussed herein
under three broad categories- interrelationships between people,
resources, environment and development* rational use of natural
resources, and new patterns of development and life-styles. These
hrwvej-r aj’f not ^j;9cra-ta- too ar^

PEOPLE-RESOURCES- ENVIRON vEwr.DEVELOP*ti:MT

An analysis of the'report of the United Nations Conference
on the Hunan Environment (Anon. 1973) will indicate that though
there was reasonable understanding at that time of the interrela-
tionships between population, resources, environment and develop-
ment, the approaches adopted an the -resolutions were basically
sectoral. Since that Conference, however, our understanding of
the develc^ent processes has been enhanced greatly. This, to a

certain **xtenti was facilitated by the hoJdino of subsequent
mqjor United Nations World Conferences on Population (Bucharest
1974) Food (Rome 1974),*Human Settlements (Vancouver 1976), Water
(Mar del Plata 1977), Desertification (Nairobi 1977), Science and
Technoloay for Development (Vienna) and New and Renewable Sources
Of Energy (Nairobi 1981) (M.R. Biswas 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978 a,b,
1981) Through the preparatory processes undertaken for these
conferences as well as through the discussions during the confer-
ences and the subseouent implementation of their recommendations,
man s understanding of the complexities of development processes
has evolved further For example, it is now better recognized
that development is a multidimensional concept which encompasses
not only economic and social activities, but also those related
to population, the use of natural resources, and their resulting
impacts on the environment (Tolba 1982),

While the interrelationships concept is not novel, the need
for rapid development and technological advancement has meant
that, very often, whatever knowledge of interrelationships was
available tended to be disregarded. However, attempts to solve
seemingly technical problems such aa desertification, Joss of
productive soil or deforestation have indicated that emphasis
should be placed not only on such physical factors as climate,
soil type, modes of cultivation or land-use patterns, but also on
diverse factors including demographic trends, types of technology
used, levels and distribution of income among the population,
consumption patterns, cultural habits and educational levels of
the inhabitants, etc. Without such a holistic approach, actions
taken to solve specific problems may give rise to several other
unintended side-affects, the sum total of which could even be
worse than the problems initially addressed. To some extent, this
can be explained by the fact that the nature of beneficiaries
often tend to be different. Much of the benefits of the original
action tend to accrue to a more educated and powerful section of
the population, whereas the adverse side-effects, to a large
extent are borne by people who do not have a power base and as
such as not in a position to influence the socio-economic deci-
sions which affect their own lives and life-styles.

Population

While it may be difficult to forecast the future precisely,
one fact is certain world population will continue to increase
for a few decades. The rate of population grovith is unli)cely to
slow appreciably, and most of this ojcowth. wlII ta)ce place m
develcpping countries, which will face challenging problems resul-
ting from rapid urbanization. According to United Nations esti-
mates, world population is expected to increase from about 4,415
million in 1980 to about 5,275 million in 1990. The population
growth rate in developing countries will in all probability drop

fflightly fror> 2.3V a v*>ar rat«» r«:ord^ in 1925, tut even
then, ir absolute ter-s and using the sickest crawth seenario of
any international «tu(ly carried out *!a far. the nu-ber of persons
beina added annually to ‘he world's rspulatian will be sionifi-
cantly Greater at the end of the decade than it is today. The
past trend of increa'e in the share of deielooina countries in
the world's population is likely ta continue from 66V in 1950 to
72V in 1975 and about 75V in 1«»90. The papulation arovth rate in
developed countries viH in all probability decrease fron the 0.7
percent rate obsersed in 1975. Because of better health care
facilities, the present trend of life expectencies at birth in
developing countries la expec*'ed to continue to increase. Simi-
larly the niqration of rural population to urban areas will
continue c’urino this period in bath deieloped and developing
c-urtries.

While It is cjcparatively easy ta rake the general forecast
of population trends, it is rare difficult to predict many fac-
tors which influence papulation trends, i.e. fertility, life
span, rsrtalxty, or migration. Information on population trends
Is one of the fun<}a*e*nta! prereguisites far considering ether
na^oT environmental trends since basic reguire'^ntB for food,
shelter, enemy, mionersls, education, erplav^nt. etc. Se^ndjOn
roouJa*'ian levels.

IrterrelationshiPR

feieral studies were carried out daring the past decade
which attempted to relate population to resources availability,
environmental degradation and deve1opr«ent. so-e studies, liVe^the..
timits to Growth {Meadow* et al. 1972) model, predicted that both
population and economic growth ruet cease by the year 2000,
otherwise society would overshoot and collapse, such studies are
now generally discredited, however, since the models developed
were simplistic, inadequate, based on faulty understanding of the
probelrs, liciited or even faulty data and considered a very high
level of aggregation. These models failed ta reflect accurately
the important interrelationships and continual feedbacks between
people, resources, environment end development (A.K, Biswas 1979,
19821, Vhat U.S .nermamarp' durj-np the .nerr dmsiadp -vj* j* .'rar?* .ruis,'-
tive approach to devel o pment which adequately reflects these
interrelationships. There is still a great potential to eitpand
the ability of the global ecosystem to support more people, by
judicious eoriination of making norm productive and rational use
of the earth's available resources and by a more equitable dis-
tribution of the benefits of various production processes <*,K.
Biswas 1994). Since the carrying capacity of the earth is not
infinite, development plana should take full advantace of the
potentials but at the sane time rust be aware of the eonscrainta
imposed by the life-support systens.

The study of interrelationships between people, resources,
environjitent and development la iinportsnt for three major and
interlinked reasons. First, it is increasinqly evident that deve-
lepnient efforts, at all staqes of orowth and in countries having
different social, economic and cultural backgrounds, institution-
al infrastructures and availability of natural resources, tend to
produce systemic effects at national, regional and global levels
that have a cumulative impact on the overall productive process
and the attainment of long-term development objectives. Second,
It IB also increasingly evident that such Bystemie effects result
from strong interactions between economic, social, demographic
and physical factors. Third, since the exact causal links between
these interactions are at present unknMtn, there is considerable
uncertainty with regard to the likely long-term impact of such
systemic effects and, consequently, attention has largely focused
on the risks of negative impacts , even though the probability of
positive impacts is also quite high. Taken together, these three
considerations suggest the need for a more constructive approach,
emphasising that the study of interrelationships should clarify
causal linkages and identify points of leverage so that appropri-
ate integrated policies and prpgrannes can be adopted to start a
cycle of positive impacts in terms of attaining both developmen-
tal and environmental objectives, and ensuring that development
can tie sustainable over a long-term basis.

The critical issues are not so imich the rate of population
growth and the insufficiency or the unavailability of natural
resources, but rather the uneven geographical distribution of
population relative to the carrying capacity of land and the
inefficient and irrational use of natural resources, considera-
tion of these fundamental issues broadens the scope of analysis
from resource depletion, environmental degradation and population
growth to include resource redistribution and transfer, environ-
mental management that encourages more rational use of resources,
development of appropriate technologies, and population movement.
Environmental management of this kind would require better under-
standing and co-operation among, as well as within, nations,
since ultimately the interrelationships between the four areas
frequently extend beyond national boundaries. In the final analy-
sis, the problem of interrelationships becomes a collective res-
ponsibility of the entire international cotnnunity.

Many of the conceptual issues associated with the interrela-
tions between people, resources, environment and development have
been clarified during the 1970s and are undoubtedly better under-
stood and more widely recoqnited at present than they were at the
time of the Stockholm Conference. Understanding of the interrela-
tionships 16 Still incomplete, however, and much work remains to
be done during the next decade to analyse the underlying comple-
xities, identify their policy implications and use the resultant
knowledge successfully m operational contexts, so that the deve-

lopT'^nt process can benefit from an jnteorated approach, rather
than the sectoral approach which is all too cotnor at present,
TechnuTues and reans wl33 havp to be dev'p3pped not pn3y for
devisino intersectoral policies and proorswnes at the national,
reaional and global levels, but also for ensuripq their affective
irpleinentation. Such developments should finally lead to rational
resources nanaoement and effective environmental protection.
Ka^or structural ehanaeo may be required, includinq resource
tran'sfers between nations to prwnote a more equitable sharinq,
development of alternative Jife-stylea. and fundamental shifts in
international economic rejafions.

PATIONM, USE or NATURAL RESOURCES

Resources are the life-blood of any society and the develop-
ment oroceas is austainahle only if it is underpinned by the
continued availabilty of natural resources Availability of natu-
ral resources, however, »s nor enough countries should be In a
position to utilize them effectively, which in turn depends on
their ability to apply technology, as well as on the availability
of funds for capital investment. There are many countries at
present which have a rich resources base, but ere still underde-
veloped due to their inability to apply technelocy to transform
those resources and/or to lack of investment funds, a situation
which IS larqety attributable to constraints imposed by social,
economic and institutional structures both within and amonq the
nations, Durinq the next decade, attetrpts must be made to use the
available natural resources successfully for further development,
while St the same time ensuring that this foundation of the re-
source and envirorurental base on which developeent itself depends
IS not undermined,

CorsuTotion of natural resources, both renewable and non-
renewable, has increased In recent years. I^eveleped countries
consume the bulk of the world’s natural resourcea , and irrational
use patterns have greatly contributed to the deterioration of
both the resource base and the quality aof the environment. This
is a trend that needs to be reversed, rurthermore, developino
countries should not imitate the wasteful consumption patterns of
developed countries. Renewable resources will remain renewable
j'ew.ijv.’ru*,'' .rp.v’vifjvVw

is respected, and similarly non-renewable reRourees can be ren-
dered renewable at least to a significant degree, by practising
conservation and extensive recycling,

Rood and Agriculture

Let us consider an important natural resources sector - food
and agriculture - which is generally considered to be rerewable.
It iB, however, renewable in terro of production only If properly

rranaa^d AcceJeration of dMertiftcation, sa] inization , loss of
croduc*'ivp soil, or loss of oenetic resourcss , can sitjnif icantly
reducp thp over-all level of production. To provide adequate food
and nutrition for the world's population during the next two
decades, food production would have to be doubled by the year
2000. There are some natural constraints, such as availability of
good agricultural land and adequate supply of water which have to
be considered in any planning process. Beyond these constraints,
ho^.ever, man dictates the pattern of development. If the strate-
gies followed are ecologically sound and viable, it should be
possiple to increase aqrieultural production as required. Food is
a net product of an ecosystem, afwl as long as the ecosystem
remains healthy, it will continue producing food. However, impro-
per monaqecnent practices can undermine the agricultural system in
various ways (Biswas 1964, Biswas and Biswas 19791. Since this is
a vital “eetor, possible future environmental trends will be
explored briefly.

Pood is a fundamental basic need it is imperative that its
production be increased and its distribution improved, both to
meet the anticipated population increase during the next decade
and to improve the nutritional status of the malnourished people
in developing countries, who according to World Bank estimates
are likely to inereease m numbers from 400-600 million in the
iTiid-l970s to around 1300 million by the year 2000.

Since most of the good agricultural land available is already
undercultivatien (e.g., the Clebal 2000 (Barney 1960) study pre-
lects an increase of only 4 per cent in cultivated land during
the next two decades), much of the increase in required food
Production will have to come from increased yield. While there is
much scope to increase agricultural yields in most developing
counrnes, the fact still remains that the number of people to be
supported per hectare of arable land will continue to increaae
from the fioure of about 2.6 observed during the early 1970s.
Currently most strategies to increase yields place major emphasis
on energy-intensive inputs and technologies such as fertilisers,
pesticides herbicides and irrigation without concomitant emphasis
on the long-term implications of continued use of such policies.
In many cases, such strategies, which evolved during the era of
cheap energy have already started to produce diminishing returns.
Even though it is now universally accepted that the era of cheap
energy is over, this fundamental fact is still not fuljy reflec-
•■ed in agricultural development policies. There is now consider-
able uncertainty about the overall impact of chancing hydrocarbon
prices on agricultural p>roduction during the next decade, and
their eventual implications for the global environment, a fact
that needs to be studied carefully. The uncertainty further
extends to the ability of farmers to maintain and expand agricul-
tural production while attempting to shift away from energy-
intensive incuts .

Jntpnslvp land use, increased use of iraroinal land and
continued dependence of a<Tri«niltTiral production on climate will
probably mean that the variability of food supply will increase
markedly durma the next decade. The real price of food will
continue to increase, and it now appears that the aqricultural
and trade policies of a small number of exportinc and importing
nations will play an increasingly dominant part in determining
the quantities of food available for trade and aid, as well as
their prices on the world market.

Such development trends will have important implications for
developina countries. Their overall requirement for imoorted food
is likely to grow althouoh at the sa«re time the share of the
world grain market of food-exportina developing countries is
likely to grow from the level of little more than lOS recorded in
JS75.

In principle, the environmental implications of future aari-
cultural development are manageable, provided appropriate strate-
gies ere adopted. The future enviromnental trends will affect
land, water, inputs and ecosystems. «1) of which, in turn, will
have impacts on agricultural deveXopnent

Desertification

Vhile during the next decade new lands will be brought under
cultivation, some of the existing land will undoubtedly undergo
soil deterioration due to four principal problems loss of top
soil, less of organic matter, deterioration of soil structure and
build up of toxic chemicals and salts. All these developments
would reduce agricultural yields.

Many signs of stress that can be observed at present also
affect soil availability, as well as its guality. The magnitude
of the problem of desertification and the urgency of counter-
measures to reverse the existing trends can be realired from the
following estimates

- The process of desertification is accelerating at great speed,
and as a result some six million hectares of productive land are
being lost, and many more ore deteriorating to close to zero
productivity, every year,

- On the southern fringes of the Sahara, some 65 million hectares
of once productive land have become desert during the last 50
years ,

- Some 600-700 million people, nearly 14\ of the world's popula-
tion, live in threatened drylands, atwJ of these about 60 million
are iirmediately affected by desertificationa .

In addition to desertification, current trends indicate
continued loss of good agricultural land to urban and industrial
development. Increases in urbanization and suburbanization have
accelerated the permanent loss of rich and alluvial soils, and in
the industrialized OECD countries, urban land area is growing

about twice as fast as population. An nrportant future environ-
nental trend could be the expansion of villages onto fertile
land. There are already signs of this occumna in many devel-
oping countries, and the trend is likely to accelerate during the
next decade

Def ores t a 1 1 on

Expansion of agriculture is a prurary cause of deforestation
at present, followed by de*nand for fuelwood and forest products..
If present trends continue, it is estimated that both forest
cover and stocks of eomereial-size wood will decline by 40%
during the next two decades in developing countries. Tron the
environmental viewpoint, the potential impacts of this loss would
be reduction of biological diversity and changes in climatt and
in soil and water regimes.

Biotic diversity is not only an important indicator of the
ecological health of the planet, but also an essential storehouse
for genetic materials for developing new crop varieties and
medicinal drugs, hbile extinction has been the normal fate of
virtually all species, the magnitude of deforestation pro 3 ected
in coming decades could mean that the rate of natural extinction
would be trivial when compared to inan>made extinctions, which
will occur primarily due to loss of habitats.

So far as climate is concerned, the mam potential impact of
deforestation could be increased levels of carbon dioxide. While
much of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere comes from the com-
bustion of fossil fuels, recent studies indicate that carbon
stored in biomass la decreasing rather than increasing. Ket
decrease of biomass volume would imply carbon dioxide build-up in
the future though present estimates of the amount vary consider-
ably

Water Pesources

It IS not only important to use land more rationally but
also, it IS imperative that water resources be used more effici-
ently during the next decade. At present, On a global basis,
nearly 80\ of all water used is for agricultural purposes. The
need for irrigation is clearly indicated by the fact that even
though only about 15% of the world’s cropland is irrigated, it
yields from 30 to 40% of all agricultural production, it is
estimated that by tha end of the present decade, in 1990, the
titaJL area. vr. tbe- vrA\ vr/we-wie- *i.t, ni, tkiWixiti
hectares, with 119 million hectares of this total in developing
countries. More and more water will be necessary for imoation.
Thus, for developing market economy countries only, it is estima-
ted that 22.2 million hectares of new land will be brought under
irrigation, rc’quiring 438 billion cu.m of additional water. Cer-

tein parts of th6« world hev*- already started to face water shor-
taae«. and the Bituattor is likely to becon-e worse in the fu*’ure
if current trends continue

This assumes, of course, that the existinq pattern of effi-
ciency of water use will continue At present, on a olobal basis,
1.3 Million million eu.» of water is used for irrioatinq crocs,
but for this 3 million cu.ir of water has to be withdrawn (A.K.
Biswas 1978). This ri'ears that S7\ of the water withdrawn is lost.
The 43% of this water rearhinn the field is not all efficiently
used Over-irrioation is endemic, which not only constitutes
wasteful use of a valuable resource, but also contributes to
deielocmenc of adierse environmental problems such as salinity,
waterloaoina and rise of qrounduater tables. These side effects
reduce the yield of the very land which irrigation, at substan-
tial investinent costs, was supposed to inake more productive.

AS water reejuiremenfs for agricultural , industrial, hydro-
electric power generation and other purposes increase, there will
be inoreeosino demands for futher water resources development
projects. Competlro demands for limited water supplies or dis-
charge of effluents to water-courses trfiieh would reduce wster
quality, and hence their potential use, could give rise to inter-
national conflicts, especially in the 146 of the world's impor-
tant river basins that are shared by two or more countries.
Similar tensions could ana* m relation to coastal fisheries and
offahore drilling Aeoerdinqly, it is essential to codify guide-
lines for tnanaqemert of natural resources shsred by two or more
States.

The present decade has been proclaimed by the United Nations
as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade.
While both the United Nations Conference on huinan Settlements and
the United Nations Water Conference ervjorsed the taroet of clear
water for all the world's population by 1950, on the basis of the
present trends and of a realistic asseasment oT the future, this
target is unlikely to be achieved, ever though the number of
people, both urban and rural, having access to potable water and
sanitary facilities will undoubtedly increase tremendously.

Fertilizer Use

Where the various inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides,
used to increase agricultural yield are concerned, the future
environmental impacts will stem primarily from their more inten-
sive use. The use of fertilizers per unit area is expected to
increase in all regions during the next 10 years. The consequen-
ces of this increased fertilizer use are expected to be more
scnoua for aquatic thsn for terrestrial systems. The adverse
impacts may occur from the leaching of fertilizers to lakes,
rivers and coastal systems, which could contribute to eutrophica-
tion. Much of the nitrocen currently enterinc surface waters - in

thp United States of America more than 70%, according to an
estimate, is from non-point agricultural sources. Furthennore,
the presence of nitrates in drinking fcater supplies is dangerous
to children under the aoe of three. Fortunately, however, levels
of nitrogen that may pose hazards to human health, about 10 mq
nitrate/1 water, are relatively rare, even in countries having
high rates of fertilizer utilization.

Improper use of fertilizers could aggravate the problem of
soil fertility The atmospheric effects of fertilizer use are
still not well understood but it has been reported that nitrous
oxides from fertilizer application could deplete the ozone layer
in the stratosphere. If this turns out to be a serious issue,
future developments could present difficult choices between incr-
eased agricultural production and depletion of the ozone layer.

Pest Management

Despite the growing interest in integrated pest management
which could reduce use of pesticides, their application will also
probably increase over the coming decade. From an environmental
viewpoint, the problems to be expected are somewhat similar to
those witnessed in many parts of the world, during the 1970 b even
though their magnitude and intensity could be different. These
ere

- Increasing biological concentration of persistent pesticides as
they move up the food chain,

- Development of pest resistance to jiestieides,

- Destruction of the natural enemies of the pest, which further
reduces the total cost

- Emergence of new pests which may not have been serious earlier.

- Impacts on human health due to contacts with persistent
pesticides.

Energy

As noted earlier, present agricultural practices are heavily
dependent on energy inputs. Energy is an important natural reso-
urce, whose availability is a pre-reguisite for any development.
The supply of energy, both commercial and non-commercial, is
likely to remain an issue diiriiKr the next decade.

Much emphasis is currently being placed on the possible
future environmental impacts due to increased emissions of carbon
dioxide resulting from the comnbustion of fossil fuels. It is
anticipated that carbon dioxide emissions in 1990 will be about
double those of the mid-1970s. While scientists generally agree
that emissions of this magnitude will not have na^Or impacts,
there is growing concern that, if such trends continue, accunnjla-
tion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may cause climatic
chanoes in the early part of the twenty-first century. According

t 3 80 ^^e projections, continued deforestation and energy-related
enissions of carbon dioxide could increase the concentration of
CXJ to approx. 600 ppn by about the year 2030. v«hi]e the seierti-
fie co"rTunity increasingly aceepta the livelihood of possible
global warning froTi such an eventuality, there is no possible vay
of confircina its validity, timing or specific irpaets. l*uch worh
re-iains to be done an this question in the future.

Increasing use of coal during the next decade could contri-
bute to serious envirorLTiental problee^, rost of which could be
limited if proper control neasures are undertaken. Viithout such
control reasures , mining could create large-scale land degrada-
tion, including destruction of natural habitats, land subsidence
and water pollution through acid nine drainage. Without adequate
control systerra, coal carhustion could contribute to emission of
atmospheric pollutants like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
particulates and trace metals. Such e-issions could increase
ecological and health haeards, including the problem of acid rain
fHoldgate et al. 1382).

Increased use of nuclear power would raise different types
of environmental problems such as reactor safety, nuclear waste
disposal end international security.

The major source of non-coemercial energy is firewood, and
It IR not an inconsequential one the total eneroy derived fromn
wood in 1914 was about the same as from hydropower, kearly SOt of
global firewood eensu.'^ptien is in devel^ing countries where the
use of firewood is at present related to the level of economic
development. The least developed countries and areas within coun-
tries tend to use the most firewood, tceording to FAO estimate,
firewgsd reguirea^ents are likely to increase at the rate of 2. TV
per year resulting by 1994 in a fuel wood shortage of 630 million
cubic metres annually in wood-poor countries.

increased reguire^nte for fuel-wood are an important cause
of deforestation, with its attendant «>vxronmental problems such
as destabilisation of nutrient cycles, soil erosion, decline in
soil fertility, and dinjniehed capacity of soil to retain water
(and hence often increaed flooding). Accordingly, the organiza-
tion and proper use of systematic foel-wpod plantation procraar>es
in the future would, while meeting an essential need of the rural
and urban con unities, make a positive contribution towards envi-
ronmental improvement (El Kinnawi and Biswas 19B1).

Vihat IS essential is to organize and manace the supply of
the so-called non-eomoercial fuels with a view to sustaining, and
if posible augT>enting, their supply as well as improving the
efficiency of their use. Vith respect to the latter, the role of
waren is the siost crucial ore, since they are principally respon-
sible for gathering firewood and water and are in c)5aroe of
household cooking. Increased efficiency will be greatly facilita-
ted by providing training to women in the use of improved devices
for cooking and heating.

The possibilities of switchina to new <;ources of eneroy
duriTiq the present decade appear to be limited (El Hinnawi et al ,
1983) and to a areat extent the energy crisis for most countries,
IS a problem of oil . Kerosene is widely used in rural areas for
liohtina purposes, and diesel is essential for transportation and
irrigation While certain oil-intensive actiiities like further
tpechanitation in agriculture and use Of automobiles do provide
some scope for conservation in developing countries the potential
IS somewhat limited, certainly significantly less than in the
developed countries.

Marine Environment

While there appears to be little threat to the open ocean
waters at present, coastal waters and enclosed or semi-enelosed
seas are receiving increasing loads of pollutants, primarily as a
result of man's activities on land which in3ect matter into
rivers, coastal outflows and atmospheric fallou*’ on the oceans.
The coastal areas are of critical importance for the well-being
of marine biota, on whom future food supplies may increasingly
depend, and for human health, for it is here that man is directly
exposed to contaminants from bathing and from seafood. Continuing
assessment of the significance of present trends is essential for
the proper management of these areas. Altemetive courses of
action must be identified so that they will be available when it
becomes advisable to reduce the infection of critical pollutants
into the seas from key sources. A more rational approach to the
development of coastal zones would pay heed to the need to pro-
tect areas identified as critical for breeding and development of
marine biota, yet these same coastal areas can be expected to
become more crowded as a result of projected demographic growth,
together with competing demand for agriculture, industry, trans-
portation, tourism and other development sectors.

NEW PATTERNS OF PEVELOPMENT AND LIFESTYLES

Throughout the history of mankind, lifestyles and develop-
ment patterns have never been constant, but have continually
evolveed and chanced with time. Furthermore, lifestyles and deve-
lopment patterns at any specific time vary from one country to
another, and often there are significant differences between
different parts of the same country.

Present lifestyles in advanced industrialized countries can
be characterized by several factors, among which are intensive
use of resources, high capital investment, high rates of techno-
logical developments, low rates of population growth, comparati-
vely low unemployment and low rates of inflation, and the availa-
bility of a trained pool of personnel to carry out various func-
tional tasks. Maiority of the developing countries, on the other

4 ?

hand, ha\«> hiqhpr rates of population arowth, low consutrotion of
resourees, hjnh unappi oyment and ond**repp3 oyirpnt , scarcity of
capital (except in oi l-expor'-ino countriesl, hiah illiteracy
rates, and often an aari culture-based ecorowy with strong income
inequality and widespread poverty. Overall economic arowth and
attempts at modernization of various sectors, which were expected
to provide better equality and to democratize developing socie-
tiPB, have on the contrary often helped to accentuate economic
and socio-political palaritation

Rural Pevelaprtenr

The majority of the poverty-stricken people in develooina
countries live in rural areas, and their incomes are mostly
directly linked to the atjricuJtural sector. So far, the concept
of "trickle-down* developmefit hea failed to improved their life-
styles to any appreciable extent. It i« this sector which needs
modification, and the present patterns of arowth need to be
dreatiCBlly changed durina the 1960#. Such modif icstions however,
can only take place if the rural poor, and espeeioly those who
are landless or have very email holdinos end who constitute the
core of the rural poverty problem, are specifically considered to
be the important beneficiaries of any development strategy. It is
not doing to be easy to reverse the past and existing trend,
since the rural poor are often illiterate, unemployed or underem-
ployed and in poor health, and thus often are external to the
decision-making process which selects development strateqiea that
affect their lives, future develoixrpnt effort# will have to
eonsider not only the total benefit# accruina from a project, but
also haw the benefits are distributed. Any development, in which
the distribution of benefit© is nvarkedly skewed, so that they
accrue primarily to a select oroup of elites, I# bound to be
unsatisfactory and unsustainable on a lona-terrn basis. Narrowing
disparities in the distribution of incomes is likely to improve
the environment.

There ore many reasons why rural development has not been
"Ore euccessfu] fo far. ■Jbey include

(a) Higher rates of population growth, which cnean that the meagre
productive asset# owned become more froamerted in successive
generations,

^b) x,ack of education and training, which means that not enough
infonnation is available ao to how the meagre assets of the
rural poor can be used more effectively and productively,

(e) Poor health due to unavailability of odequate food and nutri-
tion, lack of potable water, sanitary anrangementa and health
care faelUtiea.

(d) Weak links to the organised market economy, i.e. lack of
access to credit, essential inputs and improved but appro-
priate technology, problems with marketing of products, etc.;

(e) Use of resojTces and the enMronment, for sheer surM%al, in
vays which are unsustainable over the lonaer ter».

Poierty and En\iroa->ental Degradation

The presence of widespread poverty is often the cause of
serious environnental deterioration in eevelopina countries. Khen
reinforced by acceleratinq population growth, it contributes to
the continual erosion of the resource and env ironn'ental base from
which people must earn their livelihood, thus completing a vicious
circle which is proving difficult to break. To meet their despe-
ra'-e immediate basic needs for more survival, the rural poor hav’e
no other option but to cultivate marginal land which is prone to
heavy soil erosion, grase their livestock on land that is becom-
ing barren from overuse, cut shrubs and trees for fuelwood,
thereby reducing the stability of soil and water regimes, and
bum dung which otherwise could have improved soil fertility.
Trapped in conditions of absolute pover*’y, their actions eontri-
tw^e to the further deterioration of the renewable resource base,
making their plight even more desperate with the passage of time.
Thus, many of the world s most severe envireaviental problems are
in part a direct consecuence of extreme po%er'T»#hd it is neither
likely nor realistic to expact that impoverished people living at
the margin of existence will consider the longterm sustainability
of the planet at the cost of their own survival. Without deter-
mined attempts to improve their living conditions throngh further
development, the situation is unlikely to get better. This is a
ma^or trend that needs to be reversed as ao^n as possible, before
damage becomes too extensive and irreversible, so that the renew-
^le resources base of this planet can be conserved, and wherever
possible enhanced for the good of both present and future genera-
tions. As the recently issued report on Global 2000 (Barney 1980)
by the United States Council on Environmental Cmality has conclu-
ded "On’y a concerted attack on socio-economic roots of extreme
poverty, one that provides people wath the opportunity to earn a
decent livelihood in a non-destructive manner will permit protec-
tion of the world s natural systems. Nor will develofsnent and
economic reforms have lasting success unless they are suffused
with concen for ecological stability and wise manaaetnent of
resources".

Development depends not only on people but also on the reso-
urces and technology they have access to, and the environmental
framework within which these are utilized. Developments, both in

industrial and the agricultural sectors, should not necessa-
rily mimic western models and technology. They should be closely
related to the resources base of individual countries, which

n^eds to be assessed and then efficiently developed on a long-
term basis for the nooa of the ipaKimum number of people, and with
due regard for the environment. During the next decade, it is
essential that biophysical resources be mobilized effectively so
that the goods produced , induatria) and ecricul tural , are less
extravagant in the use of resourees,do not contribute to environ-
mental deterioration, and improve the overall quality of life.

By itself, technoloqy employed in tne serMce of development
is neutral, but how it is used can determine the success or
failure of a project. Choice of technology depends on a variety
of technical, social, economic, environmental and political fac-
tors, and many timea what may be considered to be the moat appro-
priate technology in one ecuntry could turn out to be the most
inappropriate for solving almost identical problems in another A
review of the history of modern develoiwent will often indicate
that straight transfer of technology from developed to develo^ina
countries has often created more problems than it has solved.
Wiile South-South technology transfer through technical eo-opera-
tion between developino countries makes a qreat deal of sense, ic
should not be axianaetcal ly assumed that sttch direct transfers
will present no serious problems. Developing countries are not
ell the same, they are often at different stages of development
end may have different social, economic and institutional back-
grounds.

To the extent it is possible, appropariate technology for
developing countries should be labour-intensive, while this point
has received the attention of many planners and engineers for a
long time, attecmts to uue labour-intensive techniques on a
continuing basis can be best deserib-vj ss timid and half-hearted.
The few successful examples of this approach have been due to the
determined labour of a handful of dedicated individuals, and were
mostly isolated efforts. Ehren in these few cases extensive docu-
mentation of the techniques used, their costs, effectiveness and
public acceptance, and other relevant information are nob readily
available to others who may wish to use Bimilar technology. Very
little has been achieved at implementing such successful techni-
ques at national levels, “rhe virtues of appropriate technology,
in short, are more often preached than practised.

Many instances could be cited of socially and environmental-
ly inappropriate technology being imported to developing coun-
tries, through either bila'ereJ or nuitilaCeral aid programmes,
without critical appraisal. Foreign consultants and contractors
are often used td plan, design and implement projects. In the
majority of these eases, they are not fully familiar with the
PF^vailing social, economic and cultural norma of tlie developing
countries concerned , and accordingly they often use criteria
which are based on the experience and knowledge gained in the
advanced industrialized countries which may not be applicable
locally.

Some attention has been paxd during the past decade to
elaborating the concept of environmentally sound and appropanate
technology, studying the proMerns and ir^thodology for producing
such technology, and developing criteria and methodologies for
selection of the best results. However, the application of these
concepts in an operational context leaves much to be desired, and
needs to be accelerated.

There has been some discussion in recent years of the ques-
tion of nonwaste or low-waste technology, which can be defined as
the practical application of Icnowledoe, methods and means so as
to provide the most rational use of natural resources and energy
and to protect the environment. Expressed differently, it is the
planning and management of human activities in order to provide
the nniinum waste of materials and energy both in production
processes and in consumption patterns. Waste should be considered
as a loss of potential resources, and attempts made to reduce
waste will undoubtedly produce numerous beneficial results. The
deielopment and promotion of nonwaste technology which eventually
should replace conventional technology, is a long-term endeavour
of the greatest importance, whose realization would contribute to
positive changes in all sectors of industry which would not only
promote more rational use of natural resources, but also unproved
environmental quality.

It IS clear that research and developront work to promote
non-waste technology has still not reached the desirable level.
There is an urgent need for further work to devise criteria for
economic evaluation of non-waste processes, especially of the
transformation of wastes and for the identification and operation
of non-waste production processes which would take full account
of environmental factors.

Hazardous Wastes

The persistent pesticides mentioned earlier are but one of
many classes of synthetic organic chemicals which are increasing-
ly manufacturcHl and released into the environment, where their
presence has becwne ubiouitous. Recent UNEP reports indicate that
some four million identifiable chemicals are in current use with
new chemicals entering the market annually, many of which may
have unintended adverse effects on man’s health or well-being.
Some of these effects may be delayed by transfer processes such
as biological concentration as they move up food chains. Similar-
ly, disposal of chenmical wastes is in many areas proceeding
without regard to future risks, for example, to around water,
which, by the time they are detected, may be prohibitively expen-
sive or technologically impossible to correct. Han’s exposure to
environmental pollutants, whether in food, water or the air he
breathes, is a stress which may impede his functioning or even
lead to mortality, especially in cases where malnutrition or

other deprivations have already applied other forma of atresa.
Similarly, much of the biota on which man depends for his well-
beina, such as oqricultural crops, may be put under etrese by the
impart of chemica* (and other! pollutants. In view of the trends
of increased production of synthetic chemicals and more intensive
use in industry, agriculture and other development sectors, in-
creasing attention trust be paid to assessing the significance of
trends in pollutant releases, pathways, loads and effects to
ensure that warnings, where necessary, may be sounded in good
titne, and that alternative courses of action to society to reduce
the threats are available.

Lifestyle and Energy

The lifestyles and development and technological patterns
that have generally evolved during the past three decades have
been primarily energy-intensive and are highly dependent on oil.
Sharply increased oil prices and unreliability of supplies are
now forcing major adjustments for both developed and developing
countries. While ouch major Ganges have had significant impacts
on industrialized nations, the inpaets on oil-importing develop-
ing countries have been very serious indeed, limiting their
access to energy and burdening them with economic costs which
they find hard to bear, and eonetimea devitalizing all ether
sectors. A major problem facing the developing countries la one
of reconciling the need for increasing the energy input for
productive economic activity within the eontett of a global
situation of depleting energy supplies end rising eoeta. In
addition there is the further problem of a highly skewed energy
consumption pattern among people of different income levels, with
people in the upper income brackets using disproportionate share
of energy.

It 18 psaential that possible alternative responses to this
situation be urgently reviewed, solutions could include, inter
alia, an intensive drive to conserve energy in all spheres,
changes in lifestyles that would use less energy, especially oil,
then before, and development of alternative energy sources that
are both renewable and indigenous. Further consideration should
be qiven to coal , natural gas and other forms of energy^ with
careful aeseaement and review of environmental and other poten-
tial adverse affects associated with such systems, including the
problem of deforestation doe to increasing use of firewood and
the transformation of good food-producing land to growing biomass
for conversion to fuel. These alternatives, however, may not be
the final solution for many developing countries, which after
payina higher energy costs, may find themselves with insufficient
resources to sustain a satisfactory rate of growth. Intensive
international cooperation will be necessary to overcome this
hurdle.

PMple's Partieipatisn

Sew pa'-tema of developnent will ret^iire a more decentraliz-
ed and participato’-y a'^praach tp planning. Past erpenencea indi-
ca'-e that centralized, top-down efforts fail r*ore often than they
succeed. T-e leaders and hwteaucrats cay be tnore educated and
sophisticated than the ru’^al posailace but the "best and brightest
syndrom" often fails in drvelojr'ent.

>les8"dlngly, pasple'a partieipatisn m shapina events that
will utlinately affect their live* is an eono^ic necessity as
well as social rust The people know wha*- is required, and are
fa-'jliar wi*-h local condition^^, availability of indigenous reso-
urces and the strengths and weaknesses of the cOTmnvty. The
people rust be responsible for the creat on. operation end nain-
tenance of develorrent projects Such planning and irple 9 >entation
processes will ensu’^e tha*’ their needs are properly identified
and th.at the solutions will be liable In addition it will r-ake
th«s realise that the proiect is theirs, and that t‘‘ey therefore
haie a re®porsihi] ity to octiPize t*'e use of resources and then
to caintain t*'e develop-ient works.

Oeieloprent can be sustainable if it is based on the solid
founda*'ioo of equity cobiliza*’ion of indigenous reswirees, use
of appropria’-e technology and full utilization of Innan capital.
Developrent strategies have to be centred around people, and
husan resource deseloprent should be planned so as to provide the
necessary conditions for the i-uch needed c'-snoe in attitudes end
prepa'e for a ro^e conducive ataoephere whe-ein new ideas aod
teehnoloaies can be successfully absorbed.

W^ile sope conceptual studies have been carried out in the
past on the incorporation of public participation in the planning
and decision-aaking processes, and a few individual studies are
available on their irple-entation at the level , ruch work

recains to be done on how to cake such p'-actices operational,
especially at hiq‘>er than project levels,

taiviro nr ent and Developnept

hSich work h.aa been done during the past decade on the ques-
tion of e^patability between the environaent and the socio-
econocic objectives of developoent, and on the need for and
feasibility of intecrating thea systenatieally with each other.
Starting froo the Fyor^ex neeting before the stockholo Conference
01 the Pusan Enviroreoent, and through' the work of CSTP and other
Qgqaoi-za. t i.Oiia-> it ba-a beer. tbAt vnivt'vrsiiV.K. vtA

loyment are coeplecientary, and represent two sides of the sace
coin. Throughwt the decade, perceptions of the developnent pro-
cess have been changing and greater awareness has been developing
on the iirportance of envi r o nnen tal considerations in protecting
and maintaining the resources base on wnlch development depends.

Conceptually, the coripl«>ent8rity between environnent and
de\’el9tinent was clarified during the last decade, and to a larce
extent was accepted by planners and decision-nakers. H9we\er,
there has not been inuch progress in tranalatino these concepts
into practical and operational terms. Whatever procress that has
been node thus far has been priisarily at the project level, which
not surpnsincly is the simplest. Intecration of environrrental
considerations in developnent plans has not been a success so
far. Undoubtedly this should be a priority issue for the eonina
decade.

A critical analysis indicates that there are at present many
opportunities for promo’-ino deiel opipent oroeesseBS that will
sustain lonp-term productivity. Tor exatrple, intecrated water
resources developfrent can be better planned and tranaced to ensure
better and more reliable water availability.tnitiaate flood danrace
and increase aquaculture, and at the sajre time reduce adverse
environmental inpaets on land, such as salinity Or waterlogqing,
and prevent the spread of water-borne diseases. Agricultural
systems could taVe adventaqe of inteorated pest tranaaer^nt , orga-
nic fertllieers and nitroqen-fixation, and reduce the use of
persistent and destructive chemicals. Transportation systems can
be planned to discouraae urban sprawl and reduce dependence on
petrolea-t. t,ind«use patterns can be controlled so that good land
remains available for acricultural purposes and is not lost to
urban and industrial developrents. There are many other ways in
which bath developed and developing countries can protnote envi-
ronmentally found development. However, while more than enough
information is curren*^ly available which can be successfully used
to promote such develocr>ent, it is unfortunately still not being
widely used. Measures to promote environTcntally sound develop-
ment should therefore be a top priority for the coming decade.

While any development activity will have some itrrpacts on the
environment, the overriding consideration in the selection and
implementation of development strategies has to be miniRization
of environmental costs and naximication of benefits. It is there-
fore essential that future strategies and projects be subjected
to systematic environmental impact assessments. An important
activity of the next decade has to be the development of new
methodologies for ervironnental irpaet assessments that 'are rea-
sonably accurate, and can be earned out within a limited budget
and time-frame. The techniques should not be too eemplex, so that
people can be trained to use them comparatively easily. Multidis-
ciplinary and intersectoral studies and research need to be
promoted in order to develop and continually refine such assess-
ment techniques.

While there is increasing realrracion of the need to accept
certain fundamental realities, the concept of the essentiality of
long-tejm ecological sustainability of any lifestyle is yet to be
widely accepted. The search for appropriate lifestyles will re-

cuire chanaes in bath supply and demand of oaads and sprvicps,
includina the choice of goods to be produced and technioues used
to produce them, rurthemore, production should be responsive to
the needs of the vast majority of the people, and not only of the
privileged few. Lifestyles must be in harmony with nature and in
equilibrium with the prevailing circumstances. In other words,
wasteful consumption should be discouraged, natural resources
used rationally, and the environment should be protected.

There is an urgent need for demand orientation, especially
reordering of consumption patterns in profligate societies, which
will permit the transition from a consumer society proccupied
with vast resource consumption to a conserver society engaged in
mere constructive endeavours. Khat is needed dunno the next
decade is more equitable development styles which would encourage
th“ poor to productivity by oranting them access to resources
which they presently lack-

Exhortations about the need to alter lifestyles are unlikely
to have much success in either developed or developing countries.
The desirability of changing lifestyles in developed countries
has been recognised by many of their cititens in recent years,
and some examples of new attitudes and perceptions can be discer-
ned, these are still very few and their overall impacts, though
not negligible, have been somewhat limited. What is necessary is
to find viable means which could help achieve desirable changes.

OTHER COHSIDERATIOHS

In addition to the discussions under the previous three
broad categories, there are a number of general c a ments worth
making that relate to major environmental trends in the next
decade. Some of these are implicit in the previous sections.

First, It should be emphasized that the various regions of
the world are each quite heterogeneous in terms of types of eco-
systems encoi!ipassed , extent and stagnitude of different problems
confronting them, and institutional infrastructures available
through tdiich solutions could be implemented . This means that
programmes need to be developed in response to the specific
requirements of the regions, even though it may be possible to
include then within broad global solutions.

Second, while existing knowledge can be applied to ensure
proper environmental management, this will prove futile if such
exercises are not backed by strong environmental assessment prog-
rames that will carefully assess the magnitude of each problem,
monitor the results of its management, disseminate information on
such results and identify gaps in knowledge that needs to be
filled.

Third, neither environmental assessment nor environmental
management will progress m substantial measure without strong
emphasis on the supporting measures identified at Stockholm,

©nvironmertal education and training, public and technical infor-
mation and technical aeeiatance, eapceially in the developina
countries in the next decade.

Fourth, many of the ma^or problems that mankind will be
facing during the next decade are not new. We already know of
their existence and in many cases enough infonration is available
to solve them. Thus, what is necessary is determination and
political will to irplement the solutions.

Finally, recormrendations, resolutions and agreements on plan
of action, while an important first step, are not enough. Much
time and resources were spent in preparing the action plans that
resulted from various past conferences of the United Nations,
While funds were available to develop the action plans, not
enough resources are available to implement then at both national
and international levels. Without determined attempts to generate
such resources in order to transfom the plans into actions, the
efforts made will be wasted and action plans will become academic
exercises that would cather dust on bookshelves. This is a trend
that needs to be reversed daring the next decade.

REFEtBICES ^5 33 ^

Arorynous. 1973. Report of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment. R/COMF. 4e/14/Rev.1. united Nations, N.Y.
29 pages.

Eamey, 6,0. 1900. The Olobal 2000 Report to the President of
United states. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Glsvas, A.K. T97fl. United Nations Water Conference: Suwnary and
Main Documents. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 217 pages.

Biswas, A.K, 1979. World Models, Resources and Eniirorunent. Envi-
ronmental conservation 6: 3-10-

Eisvas, A.K. 1982. Global Future studies: Review of the Past
Decade. Kazinglra 6 (1): €8-79.

Biswas, A.K. 1984. Population-Reaources-Envrirorwient-Developnent:
A systems view. Presidential Address, Fourth world congress,
International Society for Ecological Modelling, Tsukuba,
Japan. 10 pages.

Biswas, M.R. 1984. Agriculture end Environment: A Review. Envi-
ronmental Conservation tit

Gievas M.R. and Aslt K, Biswas 1979. Food, Climate and Kan. John
Wiley t Sens, New York. 285 pages.

Biswas, M.R. 1974. World Population Conference* A Perspective.

Agriculture and Environment 1: 38S-391,

Biswas, M.R. 1975. World Food Conference: A Perspective. Agricul-
ture and Environment 2» t5-39.

Biswas, M.R. 1977. United Nations Water Conferenceta Perspective.

Hater supply ard Management 1- 255-272.

Biswas, M.R. 1978. Habitat in Retrospect. International Journal

for Er!Vir3n">e-ntal Sfudit-s 11; 2fi7-279.

Eiswas, M.TZ. 197P. UV Conft'rvnet' on De-ee>rtificati5n in Retrosp^-ct.
ruviron^erital Conservation 5: 247—252.

Piswas, M.R. 1979. UV ConfMwc*- on Science and fechno] ocv for
Developnent. Mazincira 3 (2)* 36-^3.

Eipwas, M.R. 1901. LN Conference on Uew and Renewable Sources of
Enerov: A Peviev. •'azingira 5 (3)* 52-70.

Piswas, Karoaret R. and Xsi*" K. Eisvas. 19S2. Environrent and

Sustainable Eevelorn'ent in the Third World: A Review of the
Past Decade. Third World Cuarterly 4 (3): 479-491;

Pecnnted in Philippine Geoor. J. 25: 160-173.

El-Hinnawi, E. and A^it K. Eiswas. 19R1 . Renewable Sources of
Eheroy and t‘“e Environr>ent. Tycooly International Publishina
I,td., Dublin. 219 paoes.

El-Hinnawi , E. , M.R. Biswas and Asit K. Ei«was. 199. hew and Re-
newable Sources of Enercy. Tycooly Intemationad Publishina
Ltd. , Dublin.

Poldoate, V.W., M. Rassas and G.P. White. 1992. The World Envi-
ron-ient, 1972-1982. Tycooly International PuMishinty Ltd..
Dublin. 637 paces.

Meadows, D.H,, D.L. Meadows, J. Raiders, and w. Behrens. 1972.
The Liruts to Growth. Basie BooVs, Wew York.

Tolba, M.R. 1952. Developnent Without Destruction, Tycooly Inter-
national Publishing Ltd., Dublin. 197 paoes.

SOME PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Y. Fukushima*

riPST STAGC or ENVIRONMENTAL DISRUPTION

It IS rathor difficult to Qiv© prop«-r defimtiion to thp
word •'(•nvironrrent" itself, because the concept of environment xe
c>anaino al ano with the development of society, technoloqy end

pol ItlCS.

In lOTha, mankind, for the first time, became aware of •’he
rifOdc,- of the serious e^^vironrental disruotion caused b^* too
rppid orowth of industrial activities in industrialized countries.
The innovation of t*<hnolo<3y and remarkable growth of mass pro-
duction system are aHo thought as main causes of the problem.

This industrial developcrent was hitherto believed unoues-
tionably as real pronress of civilisation. Now, it began to play
very important role on disruption of the environmbnt, and cave
threat to human health. Through air, water and other pollutions,
children, old people and weak are severely suffered. Ecosystem in
nature is also severely danaoed.

Citizens stood up to convict enterprises or factories which
were thought responsible for the emission of polluting substan-
ces. The environtnental disruption become world wide concern.

Scientists and technicians played lery iinportant role at the
stage. Their activity resulted in the fruitful UN Conference on
the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972,

However, in the Conference many developing countries expres-
sed their real feeling that they did not have much concern to the
pollution but to develop their own industrieo. They expressed
their thouoht m the words ’we want pollution”.

THE SECOND STAGE

In the Stockholm Conference, many recotmvndations were mode
on Environmental Education (E.E.l Including the wide scope of
education pronratimes to educate rather high level persons, those
are, men of industrial circles and diexsion makers.

But after 10 years since the Stockholm Conference, mankind
was compelled to face with a new dimenBion of problems. They
should confront with the environmental disruption originated not
only from the acivitiea of heavy industries, but also from daily
life activities of conwon people.

•ChairiEar, National Coaimitteeon Nature Conservation,
Science Covneil of Japan, Tokyo, Japan

The huge enterpriees took necessary measures ta reduce their
effluents, and succeeded to some extent in reducinq pollution
thouah not yet complete, htiile on the other hanM, the threat of
environmental disruption throuqh daily life's wastes became more
and more serious, e.q., by the uae of synthetic deterqenta and
other chemicals toaether with the use of cars. It is needless to
say, the real responsibility comes back to makers of those subs-
tances, but users cannot be without quilt.

Thus, the importance of E.E. has become widely recoonized
newly, especially amonq common people.

Even in this staqe, it Is important not to forqet to pay
keen attention to the activities of biq enterprises, national and
especially of multinationals, in developinq countries, which have
taken insufficient measures to reduce hazards. The accident in
Mexico a few months aqo, and recent tragedy in Bhopal show the
exampl es ,

But at the same time it became necessary to pay more effort
to educate people to behave to avoid more contamination csused by
their own activities.

THE THIRD STAGE

One more problem to be considered is the relation between
man and environment, especially nature. In recent years, the des-
truction of nature is becoming more and more serious. Deforesta-
tion in developing countries is caused both by daily life activi-
ties of natives and by big enterprises. The destruettons are
causing serious damage to the lives of natives in return. More-
over, this has other environmental influences on a global scale.

The reclamation of Amazonian tropical forest is now under
world wide cone-rn. The deforestation of tropical forest in South
East Asia by Japanese enterprises has now become one of the most
serious problems of the world. Both destructions are not only
causing direct damage at a local level but also have world wide
bad influences on the environment indirectly.

The disputes between citizens and some factories were limi-
ted rather in narrow spots. Nature disruption or contamination of
environment in daily life are difficult to confine in narrow
area. And in those cases it is difficult to take direct measures
to solve problems.

It IS obvious, in such cases, E.E. plays essential role, and
the E.E. methodology requires important principles. Many people
'poi.r.teA oMt tb# tp prcmpte Ties* "ethics'" to mateVi the
reauirement .

This new ethics should be the guideline not. only for the big
enterprises or decision makers but also has to be fixed in the
minds of citizens.

The problem is, there is not yet common understanding of
this new ethics even amonq ourselves. And I believe it most

important and ur^ant to establish our cwnnon recognition on this
new ethics between man and environment, and I hope this theme
would be discussed on every occooion.

SUMMARY AMD CXINCLUSIONS

I Wish to suiranarize my view as three mam points.

First It is necessary even now to strengthen research works,
survey and training to tackle with the solution of environmental
hazards caused by induatrieB, he must keep keen watch eontinuouo-
ly We have many experiences in Japan, performed by scientists
end teachers. They educated citizens about exact scientific know-
ledge of hazards originating from factories, and with confidence,
people stood up to act.

Second Many teachers in Japan have played moat important roles
in ediieating students m fonnal and informal education, Rvamples
nay be published in coming Conference planned by us at the end of
August this year in Tokyo and other districts in Japan,

Third International collaboration is most essential especially
for the Japanese who are rather indifferent about the world wide
issues of ensironment, because Japan is isolated from continent
and leas suffered from pollution from abroad. The environmental
disruption caused by the Japanese enterprises in the tropical
forests do not reach the conscience of coimon people, i hope the
Japanese would learn more about the facts and feel responsibility
about the global issuea of environment.

Finally, we should not forget to continue our action to the
government, especailly to pay more attention to E.t. r think this
18 the same situation in each country and to achieve our purpose,
it is inevitable to work in international collaboration.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT

S. V. Chittibabu*

INTOODOCTION

"Education la all round development of man" ao said Father
of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi Education unfolds as it were one s
lateiit talents aixi capabilities It la a process of contimal
adiustment of one to oneself to society and to his ewirorment.
Adlustment is an active process with a positive approach Educa-
tion makes one sensitive to one a surroundings erables one to
cherish values in life and inculcates In one a catholicity of
outlook Eivlrormental factors shspe the individual s develop-
ment Education thus means nuch more than Rivin;; mere iratruc
tion It brinjts out the capabilities and potentialities of the
child airi channelises them toward a hijther and nobler life It
seta afoot development from within It helps the flowering of the
genius in him It la character building It promotes self reliance
and self confidence As Swami ViveVamnda would put it ecKicatlon
is the mainfestatioii of the divimtv within

EDUCATION AM) ENVIRONMENT

It can hardly be cainsaid that environment influences one s
education Ibe interaction between education and ervironnent can
be described as follows

a) Education creates the urge for a clean ewironnent

b) It inculcates in the voung minis the basic principles of
sanitation aid hygiene

c) It helps pupils and students appreciate the need for con
servation of our irultifaceted heritage

d) It teaches newer aid eivironnentally safe technologies.

Our Rich Heritage aid the Habitat Diversity

Plants and amnuls act as indicators of a healthy erviron-
ment Nature is an open book Plants help in mairtaimng the oxy-
gen balance of the atmosphere India has a rich spectrum of flora
and faum She is coimdered as one of the seven centres of
origin of cultivated plants Vie have different types of vegeta-
tion namely tropical subtropical tenperatre alpine and desert
vegetation India has about 15 000 species of vascular plants
alone among the world s total of a quarter million species

'Vice Chanceiior, gnnamalaj University, Annamalainagar, rndia

[rrtia has a yreat rary sp»e1«s of Irvertahrates Irelt^llrjf
bfsutlful imects lifc- butterflies She rarfcs sever^h «-onf th*
raibr rartre fishinr ratiom of tb» world It accourts for abO'Jt
hyi of the fish Isirllnes fror» th» Itrlia Oean Th»re ere about
2000 fi*h species aril Irrlla s share is about IWD fish species
ard rarv species of orrhibla reptiles birds errf lp '-t b Is &Jt
about 150 Bm-tti species are today ihrcatered with extirciion

Ib» eordlo'irw of their rrowth ard census will be helpful to
evaluate th- 1-oaet of develocnertal activities ispor th* erviron-
eert The diversity of flora ard faura ehculd b* preserved ard
p-otected to rairrtajr the «»jlUbritT^ in the ecosyster- tt 1*
said that th* disappearance of one plart epecies can result in
the loss of 10 to ‘jO depeideri species inclodlnx other plants
Imeets hither arh*rala etc

Botarical fard“r* ard zoolorlcal paries anl bird saretusrdes
plav a very 1-portard role in education research atrl corr^rva-
tion. The ermjrity s avareress of its herltaye of rot only
plarts but also of ardmls is es*er»lal for cor«ervation-

Jawaharlal hehru aatlv observed orce thus "In spite of cur
culiu-e airj civilisation in rary ways ran cortln>»8 to b» rot
orW vllrt but rrjre rtarwerous than ar^ of th* so called wild
am-als."

Pita'^r Par* th* flrat Chaimn of Inita’a *>atlorvl Cot^-
ttee for ZrT/irotrertal Plamng ani Coordination had said ''Con-
servation 18 in effect a foi-a of dwyelop-wr* Develop-er^ and
eomervation are rot nrtually eveluslve "

It It siyrtficar* to note that the aneiert Santas literatu*^
of 7a— j J siv*ak9 of th* close harrory of p-ople with Ih* ervirori-
rert fven the classification of poetry was based on jtpejrraphv of
the ervlrorrwrt The reorrsphlcal ervirorw-t recojrrdsed to for—
a hasci'deop for nm/ blarh veraea ard lyrics la described as
follows

1 Kurinli Pertalmrrr to th* hills anl rtyjz-talro
Z 'ijllal Pertairdne to th* Junrle ani rorest*

3 ‘^nrthaei Pertalrin? to tb* plalra
h *^idal Pertairane to tb* sea ard sea coast ard
^ PaJal Periairrfxjr lo lb* arid ao3 tSaaari raxic^v

The dpajeerted history of the conservation rove— er* in Inlia
foes tweV to p^-Oiristlan ti-ea Brt>"ror Ashs^xa (about 2^2 B C.)
in his Pock Edicts had decre-d that certain biota were rot to 1^
killed or destroyed

The fer En/lrorrertal Karoewwrt

The work of an Enriron-ertal fVotection Arency In a oour-try
Tike the tJSA t^lcb assesses ranifws enrl reduces th* envlrorr'erv
tal resporoe to cleaner dischar^a ty the industries In develop>d

countries is very encourajrinR. One of the lessors learnt has been
that the industries vhich curb atrf control pollution discharges
through recycling and application of law and non waste technolo-
gies have been often able to achieve greater profitability than
competitors who remain with older and more polluting technology.
Japan has set the trend in this direction.

The inducement to promote ewironnentally-safe technologies
in Japan could be traced to the lessons she learnt in the 196O3.
The manifestation of diseases due to envirormental pollution such
as the Minamata disease caused by orga no -mercuric compounds dis-
solved in the industrial effluents discharged into the sea passed
through fish to man and the Yokkaichi asthma (cadmiun-poisoning
through consunption of contamimted rice as it happened at Yokka-
ichi) has given rise to considerable concern (UNEP 19^4).

The disastrous effects of acid rain in many countries such
as Sweden and West Germany occur due to exhaust futies of dischar-
ged sulphur dioxide and toxic aerosols mixing with the moisture-
laden clouds in the atmosphere When the clouds cool sulphuric
acid comes down with rairwater These acids harm lunes they
mobilise toxic metals harm vegetation and fish and other orga-
nisms So events occurring in the plant and ammal world serve as
warnings for man tinkering with his ervironnent

Role of Effective Public Opimon

The effective public opimon in the developed countries
sterming from the educated and enlightened public demands strict
action from the Govertment to restrict the pollution of water,
air and soil and Goverrments have to respond. The Japanese auto-
motive industry has the world's most stringent regulation exhaust
emissions of gases are to be reduced as follows carbon rronoxide
5% hydrocarbons and mtrogen oxide 85t of the pre-implementa-
tion levels. The lesson one leans from Japan's exanple in econo-
mic development and ep/irom<ental protection could be useful to
usher in ervironnentally safe technologies.

The applicaton of 200 clear and safe technologies in eco-
industries in France has led to savings rot only in energy but
also in procurement of raw neterials. In Dermark this application
has led to firsncial benefits in of cases.

With the application of ervironnentally safe technologies,
tragedies like the Ehopal gas leak disaster through emission of
methyl isocyanate (MIC) could be averted. The practice of loca-
tion of factories and chemical pollutants in and near crowded
localities needs rethirking and ecological clearance must be made
mandatory before sanction.

The Global Corvention on Conservation

The World Conservation Strategy of 1980 presented a corvirr-

'i?

ci«i« case for coieervation It mnrshal led evidei-ce to prove that
cQiservation is absolutelv essential for stistinied development
over lone periods and that it is i»t a hiirlerance to development
but a vital incredient of progress the Convention ott Tride in
Frriancered Species (ClTESl sloped to a ereit extent the ruthless
exploitation of livine resources

The Vorld lirluStrv Conference on Pivironaental Majocement
(WICEM) held in Versailles m Nove«i4»er diatiDsed the maiiv

ills facine industrv due to its tejtlect of enviroiToental protec-
tioti end broudit to focus the mstfV issues that lend support to
envirojmetital protection.

Hazards of Desertification

Two of the jrreatest daiijzera facing irankiivl are the spread of
desert and deforeatation there is lirK between the two "Defor-
estation today IS drought tomorrow aiil famiie the dav after"
said Laurent Cabins Priirw Mlmsler of fraiee Ironical defores-
tation is a very serious issue The loss is aiamins hhile the
area of forest cover is stabilised m the developir* world
forest resources of the develODiiie countries are beine lost at
the rate of 11 tPillion hectares a year, fcccorriine to the horld
Barte's Forestry Adviser J^n Spears "the forestry resources of ^
out of B3 developine countries will completely disappesr by 2000
AD and further 13 countries will lose theirs by 20^0 AD."

Oeforeststior leads to stAceerine loss of topsoil airl acce-
lerates soil erosion. In India the <)uantitv of topsoil loss is
pul at 6000 t/yr about a decade a«o. Tlits should be much more
now. Only about of our Laict area, much below the desired
desideratum of ore-third of total land ares is forest covered.

Productivity of Forests airl Lairi

The productivity per hectare of forest area in certain coun-
tries IS yiven below*

Country

Productivity
equiv Rs/ha

West CernHiiy
Austria
Switzerland
India

565

336

Ihe reasoiB for our country s poor prcriuetivity of forest
area are over exploitation nasmanaKement and conversion of valu-
able forests into wasteland (Krishnamurthy Ihese apart

the alarming rate of depletion as revealed by recent Natioml
Remote Sensing Ageixy data of 1080 82, speal<s of a loss of about

103 «40 kn of forests •iiKe 1Q72 75 (Par\«varan 19^)-

lYie lo's due to water ercroartenert in Kerala is twt at lOO
irillion ha airi that due to warrl erosion in Kachch (Kutch) at 50
nllicn ha The area affected bv amial floods is 40 irillion ha.
(iQiW oata). Water-lorinr* and increasing soil salimty affect 13
trillion ha Thi.s s»re 6J% of our atncultural lands and 72% of
rerv-amcultural lands tet cortitually d»p-ade<l About 6 5 ri^ll-
ha of land are located ir coastal States of India this includes
6 nllion ha which reeained verv productive till the other day

Vealth of the *l3rertTve Forest

The total area urrier roncrwe forests (tidal forests) is
about tj67S kn in India dCnshns-urthv l‘lb4) This rew^ly
accourta for about 7k of the *»orld a most liatunant cancrove
forrations found in the Tnrto-Paciffc Recion.

The rarcrove forests of Pichavarast alone taking it !• an
exa-ole of the Indo-Pacific ranertne cortnlwte 1 566 torres of
carbon per Near as orpamc nstenal for the ttxm'drner* cf adta-
cerr Bav Bercal seaboard 9 or«ns*r9 and 261 tomes ef carbon
as orpirue materials for nBi^bounre estuanne e^/amsrr* Only
7B3 tomes cf carbon oer lear w»re utili«ed arri retained fcr use
tothir this eco^ste- (<<£>ra-®nan et al. 19W) This would show
the trer'enrtbas export oot«r*xal cf the rercrcves to the adioimrt
oa«tal sea fo- the use cf the sarine denzers This is refle-ted
in ertuTced fisherx ^*leld kitdi the derudation of the eeivrove
fo'««t caropv the sea erosion alone coastal stretch occur*.
*!anc*ihe* al*o serve as a buffer to arrest the fury of the cyc-
lones partieuiarlv ot the eastern coast of Irdia. Eut for their
pretectiie «hield the imact of cvxlone alone coastal stretches
would be C'eater Th- accelerated derudation of re iyi w es in
India ha* resulted in sv£>star*ial reduction to about pO-bCTi cf
th- area that existed at th- errt cf the last century (Krishrwur-
th\ \ct le *5 'Gian 10 species of rancrove \epetataon a—e

threatened with extirctior ir Iitdia alone (Krisbmrurthv ItiW).

Conc-pt c*" E osphere Reserves

It IS -imficar* to rote that realisine the iroo’-tanee of
livinc le-cwrces and th-ir fast rate of oepletion the Governor'
of India have de-ir^ted so far 13 Eio*ph*re Peserses fo^ trotec-
nrc pm-ervine and esr*-*-vinc th- vanerated Imne resources of
c*-r ccu'^m Th-% irclude repre-ertatiie* frm the ^eterorerous
habitats «i>:h as the rour'airs (The Silpins Va-riapaha-Arurorfial
th- sea (G_lf o^ v^i*Er Ram ef Kachch), the d— ert
(Thar) etc.

■"hus erviromertal educaticn ^x»ld start fro- the -chool
level to na*« on to rostentv c«r nch hentac*. As Theodis-e
Poo*-velt said "The ration be*iave a w-11 if it treats the ratural

resources as assets which It imst turnover to the i»xt f»nera-
tion iiereaaerf anrt tot iirpaircd in value.”

Krlshnamjrlthy, K. 19^^ the role of the naatrove forests In the
preservation and protection of the coastal ervirotwent.
Report under the Pitairbar Pont National Environment Pellow-
ship Award submitted to the Department of Erviroiment Govt,
of Tiriia. New Delhi. 263 poftees.

National Remote Sensinjr Atency 1983. KsppinM of forest cover in
India - Deceetaer 1983* Hyderabad.

Paryavaran EwiroiTnent News - Itilia 198^ (2) !*». Department of
Erviroment . Governnent of Iixlia, New Delhi.

Subramanian P H J , Prince Jeyaseelan and K Krishnaimirthy 1989
Ihe leture of biodejrradation of veyetation in transrove eco-
system. Chemistry in Ecolojry 2 9?-6tJ

UNEP 1989. World httustry Conference on Eivlroimental marage-
meiit (WICEM)i (Xitcotne and Reactions United Nations Environ-
ment Protratme, SpCvial issue No 5. 9l pates

PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT: THE ROLE OF
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IM INDIA

O.P.Dwivedi* , B. Kishore** and S. Shrotriya***

INTTODOCTIW

V.e beain bs th'nt there \3 a nev. world comxna, a
wxjrlH where man !ive« 5n ham«n% with his environment, and that
IS beinc built in tht cl.issrooms of schools and universities.
This obtiTniam is based on the wave of enviromientalisTi which
ushered in the seventies in the West, and which is now makine a
npnle in India due to the wave of environmental ootimism initia-
ted and pushed by Mrs Indira Gandhi, anti continued by her succes-
sor. The optimism that somethine could be done to control the
degradation of the envirorsnent without necessarilv sacrificine
developmental rrotrarnnes essential to alleviate poverty, has now
ijinited the interest of professionals, administrators, and some
citizens. Conscious efforts are betn; made by covemment depart-
ments such as C*ntr3l anti State Departments of Environment to
encouraee both research and reculatlon of environmental issues.
Various oreainsations , voluntary and non-eovernmental , have been
set up to increase the environmental awareness in the society.
However what is urcentlv needed is the buildine of a constituency
for the future, a constituency of future citizens which will
expect nothine less from its eovemment and the pri\ate sector
than a quality of life, and a livable environment wnere tne man
will live in dicnit^. Ebildine of such a constituency is the task
of our educational institutions. Ihe nation where the tnin will
live in diEPitv. Buildinz of such a constltuenev is the task of
our educational institutions. The nation cannot afford to k-ep on
producing scientists, lawyers, artnioistrators and businessmen who
would view, as many of them do now. In the next ten to twenty
years pollution as a minor idiite collar crime, an irritant neces-
sary toward economic development, and a value which can be subor-
dinated to other itnnediate concerns of the society. ’Environmen-
tal Education' would have to aim at producinjt a citizenry, creat-
ing a constituency of enviromientally oriented people, that is
knowledseable rejtardinz the biophysical and man-made environment
and its problems, aware of how to solve these problems, and rroti-
vatAd epftjiib. •rte/r'a zoVotwri. Scit.N'i a tJnaWwrter 'rtsts

*Department of Political Studies, University of Cuelf, Canada

** Environmental Coordination Unit, BSCAP, Bangkok, Thailand

***Vnder Secretary, Departiaent of Environment, New Delhi

to lie taken by c'kicational institutions, snrt amonc these, tmlver-
«lties anrt eolleees vdll have to show the lenHership. This report
Is on the role anrl contribution of universities In nrotectine the
envlrom’ent with eTT^\asi3 on universities in the State of Uttar
Prari-=sh .

PHTUJ'^OPllY AM) ODJ«‘CTIVFS OT FS'VtnOM'ESTAL EDUCiTTON

It IS vital to effeetiwelv O'tucfite win reeartllne his reli-
tion'lnp to the totnl enviroiniiicnt , the rrlntionshin which is
haoed on the rmtualitv of resoect rather than on superior-subor-
dinate relationship. Hence maior eoale of environmental educa-
tion should be to help Individuals acouiro

1. A clear undcrstanilmc that nvin is nn msenarsble part of the
biosphere which consists of nvin and his txnU-ii envirorrcnt. the
existing biophvsicnl environment, and the sustenmee of the eco-
logical tvilmce.

2. A broad iinrleratandlne of the bioofiv"^i'*il environment and it«
importance to human race.

3« A fundanvntal understnndine of the nature of environmental
oroblera confrontlnz tnin, how these problems mov \k solved, the
basic reaponslblUtv of the society and eoverrment to work for
solvlne oueh problems.

4. Devoloprent of environmental ethics which will motivate people
to participate in Uie decision-maklnc process and to rieownd f'^r i
protection of the environment so as to advance human welf- « -nrt
dlcnity.

These foals are derived from the c^iilosophy of environmental
education which asserts that ireiii is an inteeral rarl of the
ecoavstem from which be carmot inaintain a separate existence.
Within this system, the amn’s culture, values, his oreaiueationm,
scientific and technolocical knowledee, and social arraneements
are elements throurii which man interacts with the biophysical
environment. Man use* and exploits resources available in the
hiosohere towards his jrwediate pun. An ucdcrstandinc of the use
and exploitation of such resources by man is essential. In addi-
tion, a stronz understanding of the Innact of man-rade components
an t.be ftSTstlaninr of ertvjrwsmnrt jfs- tKces^etry,
Such an underatandinp can be sustained through an edueitional
process which hlphliehts the scientific and technolopical expla-
nations of the factors wliich cause pollution; kinds of poillution
(such as indiscriminate use of pesticides, toxic substances, air
and water pollution, urban blijht, conc^eation, and pcnerol depre-
dation of environment); and laws includinp pollution contrtol
policies and proprames, natural resource* mnnacement, techniques,
and what remedies ore available for them to fipht for protectinp
the environment. It is throueS the educational process that
man's attitude towards envirotment is to be shaped. Hence, the

environmental elucation stiould aim to

a. provide factual inforwstion to stiwients v,-hich will lead to the
understandin«r of the Intricate system of ecological balance, and
man's place in it,

b. develop a concern and respect for the environment.

c. inform people as to how they can play an effective role In
protectinjf the environrrcnt by demanding chances in laws and
enforcement system.

MFETING IHE OEJECTTVES

These obieetives can be met by effectine appropriate chances
in the educational system. It is succested that the envlronrental
education procrarrme at various levels of education should provide
emphasis in the following manner

I. Primary Education Level

f^ln emphasis oucht to be on introdueinc to ^he student an
awareness of his natural surroundiiKs and the eifts of ewiron-
ment. The curriculum should include the definition of the term
environment, various diseases and problems resulting from envl-
roivnental dejrradation, prevention of diseases, and idiat a man
should do to protect the environment.

II. Junior Hi«h School Level*

Introduce students to a conceptual backjrround of environment
tal factors includinc the scientific and technoloeieal causes «
abuses of the environrmnt bv uxlivlduals and industries, kinds of
diseases resultinc from pollution, and preventive actions. The
emphasis should be on the causes of pollution and techniques of
pollution control (including comnunity action, pressure Rroup,
use of political parties, demanding adequate protection by laws
and enforcement system).

III. Hljrh School/Hmher Secondary School Level

ivhile upto Junior hifdi school level, students would receive
a compulsor> environmental education, at the hieh school level,
optional environmental education proyraitn'c can be built in their
respective stream of courses. For example, students speclalizine
in science-related courses (such as chemstry and bioloey) could
mecefive irore specialised education ol envirormental problems as a
part of their course coverajce. Similarly students In arts and
cotrmerce proeranme can be further exposed to socio-eco»)omic fac-
tors, jcovemmental system, management techniques, and social
responsibility of industries to protect the enviroiment. However,
students should be exposed to other disciplines. Hich School and

hch'T Foconrtars ^lu'ents •iVould the -•lue cf cm iron-

neiit os a future respotis:hle cltiTon, protect the environment
not onlv for then ceneratlon hut also for the eenr^rations to
COrre.

IV. I'niversitles a»ifi th^ Fjtviro*'T««it ^turli»“

R?\'ond the hich school level, universities have fiso specific
roles to pliv in enviroimcntnl eAication (i) to n'^oviHo leader-
shm h\ coiituctlre research cxi envlrormental problera nnd prepa-
ri 1C scientist* vho v>oulrl then continue research ami (ii) to
t am ■’xoerts for rxnwcine the environrent. These specialists
voulft rerniro first the basic un«*ercrn(\iite (and where necessary
the <}oi.torTt ) education iwwl training. At the saiw time. It
should be recoraiiacd that cm ironmental study and research cannot
he entirelv left In the hands of traditional disciplines. Fron
the ver\ heemmne, the esThasis on envirorrnental ertncation has
be»n rultidiseinUnn-> , conscuentK at the u-nersit. level, not
c. w o rreat dr-t of rtiscinlire hut also a broad breadth of
knowledge dealing vith interrelatedness of envirom’cntal problems
(beyond the horltons of natural sciences, eneineerinjs and riedical
sciences) which ileal witli socio-economic, cultural and lecal
aspects would be required.

Tt is not suteested that pure dlsleiplines, should not
continue to provide the funiiamental strensth in enviroispental
research. These dlseloltnes have been the mmstav of forjfliijt new
frontiers of ioiowiece, but at the same tifne they have erected
disciplinary barriers.

STAIVS Or E-WIRON^IVTAL EEtCATIOV U.P.

The above listed cortnents and curricula su;:Restions were
discussed with the officers of State Ministry of Education and
with Heads of Universities and Institutions in Alisarh, Kanpur,
Uickiiow, Varanasi and Allahabad. Observations, divided into two
parts, are listed below

A. Education at the School level

The Ministry of Education of U.P. Government is not only
aware of the reed to import emdronwental education to its stu-
dents, tut has taken substantive ineasurcs to introduce necessary
curricula chanses. For exaimle, atartmjc from Class J lessons on
borne sanitation, social forestry, health and oersonal hygiene,
need for fresh and jxirc air, etc, are included. the time, a
student reaches the level of Class 7 end 8, he is told about the
odvantaRes of forests, Itrpact of environmental dcjrradation on
society, destruction of forests and disappearance of orchards and

crarine laniis, pressure of erowine population cbi the etn u'orment
widespresd u«e of fertilirers and insecticides, air end vater
rollution etc. Cha-ts ^ni d^acra-ns have b«ei5 prepared to illus-
trate the impact of e’Tvironmental decnrtation on the «ociets. Tn
addition film slides have been prepared, a documentarv iilm i»
planned and a booklet has been published vhich deal® Kith envi-
rot-rre^yt and the JJTCreasine population. Jt seems that students of
U.P. State are receiving ad^otiate «>\ iro ime*ital eduta*ion upto
Class VIll.

From Class IX to XII, the Board of Sj^condarv Fducation
determines curriculum and ccwrse contents. As students are re-
quired to take science and social s-ience courses, thev are
instructed on the relationship of iran to his eitvirotment (Potanv
and Zoolotrv), pollution and oualitx of en\ ironment {Geo-Taph\).
Howe\-er, there does not esist a suhiect on environmantal studies
at the Hich School le\el. It is recotmended that the L.P. Itoarl
of Hich School aid Intermediate Cducitioji consider piovidine -ir
optior.al subiect on erwironmental studies. ^jch a subject voul i
draw from various disciplines, and teWld pT-^asize o!i man's
dependence cm the environment.

B. Bnvironmenlal Studies Brocrairie at the Uuiersitv level

The visit to five main Uiiversitie* (Alicarh, Kanpur, luek-
now, Danaras and Allahabad) plus the Indian Institute of Techno-
loiv (Kanpur) revealed that no institution has develop“d a com-
prehBisive environmental studies rrocra-rre. Howsver, in all ini-
versit es department* of Potanv and Zoolon are dome important
and significant re«“arch and irpartinc po«teraduate edueatiwi. In
the TIT (Kanpur) It stitute of Technolocv (HilL), ' .L.N. TeRional
'htrineerinc Colleee (Allahabad) and Celiecs of Bncineerme (Ali-
garh ‘iislim liiiversitv), there are plans (and m some places
there are already p r ocr a imes m place) to offer emnronmental
engineerine courses. H.E.T.l,. Kanour has a special interest in
env'ironmental engineerinc, and is seekmc cooperative linkages
Kith Other institutions in Kanpur.

An oreanisational structure (see chart I) is proposed for
envarortTiental sltudies protr-a-ime at the iniversitv level. It is
recoimtended that universities consider establishing an IKSTITLIB
OF EWIRONMTVTAl. ^TUOTCS Khicb should have three divisions • (l)

Divison of Emarorcnental Design Engineering and Systems to draw
upon th* existing* strengths from the engineering and mathematical
sciences, (^) Division of Fuvnromental 'k-iences (to srphasize oo
natural and physical scimces including Tedti-a /health scieic"s),
and ( 3 ) Diii«’im of rjrvirwimei'ax '«cio-Eco lonc aid Legal ^to-
dies, to draK upon the disciplines of economic®, geographv,
political •jcience, sociology, philosorfi\. law and language®.
Irrespective of the fac* Irtm nhich divTSion a stuf'ent complete®
his specialisation, he would receive a '•‘'C. decree (in enviroii-

UNIVERSITY VICE CHANCELLOR

Fig, 1. Suggested Structure of Environmental Studies Programme at the University Level

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF L loiRECTOR

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT f I RCEH

Suggested structure for a Pegioml Centra for Bnvlromiental Maiagement

of ram arri ciimste oti tiare latvlscai^ awl erortinc soils as also
b\ elimimtion of certain species bv huntui? etc arrt ratiire s
slow abilits to restore)

rl) Life in various tvpes of intural erviroiirents such as
polar areas temperate reciom emsslands tropical forests
deserts coastal belts nvers lakes oceans isolated areas awl
evolution of new species etc

The details airi contents will la\ accorriinit to the rature of
studies but an ceoloeist will have to stud^ all these while a
botanist zoolonst cheracal ercineer forester civil emnecr
peolojtist mav have to hsie a jteneral backprouwl awl rrore details
of a particular aspect as listed atsove

HOW TO LCO< AT A.*a> AITOECIATC SATVRE

It Mill also be neeeaaarv for people living in today s
artificial erviroment to educate the^ as to how to look at ard
appreciate rature One nust uwterstawl how to allow tlie natural
scene to take its effects or him and savour its special charae
ter and forget the other things on one a mind for a while
Nature aid its rt\>ttTns will have to be properly grasped if
oneness with nature is to be established for a short while Sow

ergamaed excursions with experts showine how to eeroentrate and
practice understaidirg of the nature emoy its pleasure its
colour aid contour rather than interfere with it Nature could be
an year rouwt irnpiralioii if people can develop an eye to appre-
ciate It see iardacape in various seasons eharces in colour and
texture along with cliirwte aid effects on the amnal life

Education on rature will have to be a very iirportant item on
the agents of ervirormental education This will help restore the
coROOsure of huian beings and their relatiarahlp with their
surreundiiits If people are eduaited in this way they are less
likely to take part in spoiling mture in their day to day life
and while recreating on holidays etc

OEVELOPfENT raOJECTS AM) ENVIRONMEN*r

It has been increasingly, accepted waw eaperjLaJJs-j af.te,*: ifee.
intervention of the korJd BaHc that envirorwertal appraisal is
necessary beforehawl for the clearance for lerding ard approval
to any maior developnent proiect especially irrtustry awl most
other large scale urban development works The problems that iray
be created ongirate from the possible psychological physiologi
cal awl socio cultural effects These effects vary fjxm a hj-dro-
electnc proiect to an iwlustriaL or a large scale housing pro-
ject Iidustrv pewr forestry fishing livestock rural deve-
lopnent transport aw! tounsm all will present different types
of inplications

Tools and techniques will have to be developed ard experts

(Suggested action programme)

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trained ir the studv of the iirplicatians solutions to the prob-
lems arrl costinc of such solutions m relation to their benefits.
The traimrc in appraisal techniques will be a highly skilled loh
by Itself

The amlvtieal techniques for study of sources and effects
of industrial pollution effects on oir water and land will have
to be tau*t in relation to each type of pollutant its charac-
teristics principal sources principal effects controls and
standards or l e rrR s beyorri »ihich the pollution effect may be
formed as hazardous Various types of caseous liquid and solid
wastes will have to be stxalied aril amlysed arxi their effects on
life and envirorr'ent will haie to be properly utrlerstood by the
"would be" ecntrollinjr authorities

liRBAN ENVIROVIENT

It will be necessary to educate planners architects engi-
neers arlmmstrators and such other professionals who are res-
poraible to enkirq proposals affectinj? eTTVironnert especially
creating (even disflgunr^) urban ervironrent. The topics that
may have to be covered by a course for these profcssiomls will
be as follows

a Urban ervirorTnent in contrast to rural ervirorment
ta Perception cr image of cities towns and aettlements
e. Effects of tomnj densities heights ard jcreuping of
buildings and building byelaws etc.
rt Traffic end tramportatioo street furmtur* and its
IfTpact on etviroment.

e Effects of vegetation (trees grass and other plants)
water bodies and wind pattern on the ervirotinent (meeau-
rement in terms of temperature lowering or air corriition-
ing coats being reduced or tiist content and CO content
reduced by vecetation) f IVeaervation of natural or

scenic beautiful spots m cities anl towre regulatiots
for their control etc

g Techniques in ervireimentsl appraisal or Enviromiertal
Impact Statement (EIS) as developed in western countries,
h. Overall drainage patterns, hill ranges tree plantation;
built up areas an! their effects on raicro-elamate of
particular areas and special steps to protect the ervi-
ronnent and adverse effects on life
1 Performatue standards for industries for pollutants sucJi
as noise smoke dust aixl dirt edaur toxic gases, glare
ard heat fire hazard, industrial sewage traffic and
transportation and aesthetic factors.

Suitable emphasis will have to be given on seme cf these
aspects in particular types of courses for particular rlisciplinea
of professionals.

ROLE OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES AND EDUCATIONAL INSTIHriES

Voluntary aeencles have an irrportant role to play in the
field of ewiromiental education because they are much closer to
the people and freedom to work and access to the people as compa-
red to the coverment aeencies Voluntary agencies and educational
institutes can take up progrartnes on enviromental education on a
large scale.

C(»4CLUDING REMARKS

This paper has very briefly outlined aspects to be covered
in various types of Cn^ironnental Education courses from nonral
curricula in schools colleges to education and training for
professionals and eonmon people These nay have to be discussed
and specific proposals recomnended to the respective authorities/
agencies and efforts made to bring out articles books etc for
creatine general awareness about enviroment among the people

Specific action also will be necessary in respect of role of
mumeipal and other development agency officials Separate courses
will have to be organised for them as in service and induction
courses. The culture which is generally developed with emphasis
on "regulatory approach" will have to be changed to "development
app~oach" which will considerably help in the matter of erviron-
mental protection and improvement.

PROJECT BASED TEACHING IN ENVIRONKENTAL EDUCATION

Reinhold E Lob*

The cnicjal aim of erv»roni>#ntal »<*ueaCion ih the develop
nert of behaiiour which is in accordarce «th eJ^roiTT'entsl
needs This tneam to transfortn knowledge arrl experieise into
eser^’one s life Therefore eTs.irofriental ecftieation should be
related to the proble-ns as thev exist in the pupils irrnediate
living erviroir'ent On the one hand it should am at firriinp
concrete solutions to problem and an the other hand at orovid-
nxt for the participation of teachers ant pupils in a practice-
orientated teachinit and learmnft process (Kabneh lOSlI.

Vhat better »/av js there of achjevin? these jroaJs jn schools
than by proiect -based teachinp* The sijtmfiearce of this fom of
teschinf has been under discussion in kmerican and European
educational circles since 1^35 Bossins 193?> end J Dewev

and H V Kilpatrick 1935) In the seventies further books appear-
ed on this subiere incur country But what is the situation
really like with rejrard to the realicAtien of this mjch-praised
fonn of teachirs*’ I have the icrpression that ever jrreater leral
barriers new directives for the teachers the teachers mn
indolaree their iob-oriem«d thirkintt arrl the retreat into the
siRple transfer of rnatenel has to a larjre extent prevented the
application of proiect based teachins in the schools of our
country The performance of nultidiscipllmry proieets Is parti-
cularly prevented by the n*id crirarnzation of the school 's day-
to-day -projtramw the division into subjects and the traimnst of
teachers to be specialists in only few subtects Most of all
there are the problens of reasunnK achievement and assessnent in
project based teachin;; But to be honest the theory of proiect-
based teaehimr is all cuite mce. but in the real school life
there is little room for those protects, often only in a mixed
forni aid with restricted scope,

&it happily times are chanrtnff I have the arpression that
the new exciting task of etxnronnental education has rekinlled in
nany teachers ani pupils an interest in the perfomance of site-
based projects This time the initiative has rot cane frwn above
frcn professors of education bat the desire is being expressed
on the school front. Rroiect reports on ervirormental activities
in schools are coming from all parts of Germany In our centre

* Centre for Environsental Education, cesastttochschuie,
Universitut Essen. Essen, h Cejciany

for ErTvirotnental Bducation in Essen we have already started a
srnall collection of such projects It seems to me as if with the
newly acknowledged task of enviroiinental protection new life has
entered the schools It is my impression by saying that throush
the idea of en'/irorrnental protection people have developed a new
interest in the ewirotirent of their hone districts in their
irmediate liviiie spheres For this reason more and more teachers
and pupils are concerning themselves with local topics such as
the question of preservation of historical mo name nt a and urban
renewal. Particularly interesting in this connection is the work
outside school and the feeling in all the participants of doing
something "real" In fact many protects connected with environ-
mental congervatior are linked to concrete goals in the locality
and in local policy They often have clear tangible results: for
example tew tree plantations or cleared ponds.

I would like to rerK>rt on such an example in Dusseldorf
there ve have the Jan-Wellem School where snail-scale actions
concerning ervirormental protection have been carried out for
years For example, sections of the Rhine batk were cleared of
garbage and a small marshy area was cleaned up. In the school
there is a permanent "Ewironrnent Exhibition" in which the find-
ings from the clearing actions are exhibited These activities
gave rise to the permanent establishment of an "eivirorniental
protection working group" imolving pupils from various classes
and age-groups The work of this group has directed the attention
of the city authorities towards the school.

Thus one day the following offer was made: the city of
Dusseldorf had DM 5000 available for cleaning and saving a small
marshy area. The city offered the work to various firms. None of
these was prepared to perform the work for this price Finally
the "environnental conservation working group" of that Dusseldorf
school applied for the contract. There were a rurriber of explana-
tory discussions between the pupils, teachers and the city admi-
nistration. There was seme doubt »*iether the pwpils and teachers
were capable of performing such a serious contract in a .correct
manner. Of course there is always enthusiasm at the beginning,
but then . . Finally the coirtract was signed. The working group
set to work the whole site was surveyed photographed and drawn.
Equipment was obtained from other teachers and from parents. The
father of one of the school-girls provided a small truck for
carrying away the garbage. The remaimt^ work had to be postponed
until mid-September so that the ang^ibious life in the mud could
be spared up to that point. A pensioner who was familiar with
Vpa-: f its.*., Vn* Tol-e tif spernViw *001 laier ’peosme afi

active member of the group Be had a lot of time good knowledge
of the area and practical skills And so various generations,
pupils, teachers people in the neighbourhood and the city's
forester were involved in a ioint action. The work lasted several
months (see W. Henz and B Streedter I 981 )

an essential didactic condition breaking down of the subiect-
based timetable to create an unlertakin? which has to be regarded
and treated in an integrated fashion In this way coiiventiojBl
aubiect teaching is broken down and learrang becomes a more
lively and true-to-life process built up as it is on ratural
interest. The teaching matter which is ofteji abstracted out of
reality is seen and experienced once more in its real context.
Here again the teacher becomes familiar with the subiect by
himself.

He has to transcend subject bouiiiaries himself and ask other
colleagues for assistance and coo(>eration. In order to prevent
integrated work on the teaching proiect from slipping into mere
bungling or lack or professional competence even into dowinght
error the factual and professional competence must be ereured to
a certain extent.

Ror all the realism of a proiect it must be said that in
most cases the out-of-school reality is only present in outline.
This is also acceptable. The long established educational task of
achieving a model picture sets a whole range of limits to practi-
cal work however and precisely in the field of detecting ewi-
ronnerrtal damage certain scientific matters, such as pollution
of the atmosphere can very often be not presented in a simple
way with regard to their consequenes and causes It is often even
more difficult here for pupils to obtain model readings by means
of their own measuring methods Similar things apply with regard
to social ani other cultural questions

In the specialized literature we also read of the experience
that neither the teacher nor the pupils should begin imnediately
with a large proiect It is important that as early as many weeks
atxJ months before in the course of quite "normal" teaching indi-
vidual sections of work involved in proiect-learmng should be
practised. Then small tasks should be given to the pupils These
tasks should also have the character of a project aixl be dealt
with outside the school by the pupils To summarize then begit>-
mngs should be small and modest and take the form of steps which
can be grasped Pupils, colleagues of the staff and parents must
be trained.

The example of the Jan-Wellem Scholl in Dusseldorf shows
that a group prepared in this way can achieve extraorditary
things further on.

Another obiective of proiect-based teaching is as follows.
It is less important for the pupils to enlarge their factual
knowledge by meai* of a project than to tram their skills and
particularly their behaviixirs until they meet the needs of the
environnent This goal applies more for the first envirormental
proiects than for those that follow if envirotmental awareness
has already been built up m the initial proiects then in the
later o»»s the emphasis can be more on factual problems This is
what the pupils themselves denunl.

areas and the tree stock. Later one of them photographed parti-
cularly p-ooQ atii paraticularly bad samples

Gradually the pupils developed according to their ovn sta-
tements, an eye for vhere savings were being made on planting,
»diere trees had been felled and for what reasons.

At the same time tried to obtain infonration iraterial from
competent non-regional offices ard institutions: for exsvrple on
such questions as directives on the preservation of trees in
cities, damage to trees by vehicle exhaust gases, planting of
trees in plartmng permission etc Here the pupils had their
first encounter »o.th the authorities they received four letters
in whicdi, the cacnp>etence for arswering the questions was shifted
from one office to another and finally they were referred to
local authorities. 'Anyway, we row knew all abcwt the rough path
of officialdcri . . that there is ro central body which draws up
guidelines according to *hich the local authorities should worit.
Every local body has to nuddle through ... " (Frey, Stottele,
Weichert, 1976 p l6)

then visiting the local Building authority refrarkably. they
saw a dead tree in front of the door After a con/ersation with
the person responsible for the ratter they knew no more than
before. They realized that they first had to acquire basic know-
ledge arrt stated that they should be better informed in order to
mange such an actual topic as erviremental protection (Frey,
Stottele Weidiert 1976 p 17).

In working out this krciwledge they learnt about things iduch
went far beyond their theme and ehich concerned general erviron-
merrtal problems the sirtcing of the groundwater level, the seal-
ing of the soil by contruction work, atmospheric pollution...
Ibe tasks of trees within the overall ecological context (for
exanple production of oxygen) and its significance in our damaged
ensriroctnent (collection of dust cleaning the atmosphere lower-
ing the temperature) came into view, and rereover the problems of
corvrbation (Metropolitan Areas)

An opeimon pell was also started with questionnaires drawn
up by the pupils themselves. The group sumanzed that the popu-
lation had no rerarkable etwiroTwental awareness.

Firally the grcxip of pupils even fouiri courage to approach
the city authorities suggesting iirprovements. They discussed with
local politiciars the recessity of planting trees in the city and
preserving existinz trees. Indeed as a result of this debate rw
trees were planted in some places of the city. But also bitter
realizatiotB had to be faced

- there is indeed no money available for rature,

- cities are bmlt to do Tustice to motor cars and not to people
*■ there are disputes over comp^etence within the authorities anl

these result in nothing being done

After a concluding ^imon survey however a glimpse of
hope appeared the individual citizen is now at least more inter-

- indivjdual responsibility and xnvolvement on the part of pupils

- behaviour inodification (specifically for er^'iro^ner^tel matters)

Project-based teaching tliich Is directed in this way and is
often performed outside the school building has been praised in
specialized literature since 1935» In the reality of Germany
schools however it plays a relatively minor role Irstitutlonal
obstacles as well as the indolence of many teachers are the
causes.

With the emergence of etvlronnental topics In schools within
the framework of ervironnental education there seems to be a
considerable revival of project-based teaching. EnvlrormerTtal
conservation prolects in schools are continually published. Some
of them are preaerrted in detail in the local anl regioral preas.
There they also provide a significant impetus for the creation of
public awareness. Two exafrf>les are described In this paper from
the large city of Dusseldorf (cleaning and saving of a marshy
area) and from the small town of Ravensburg (trees and green
areas in the city).

Finally I would like to give you a quotation frcm a partici-
pant in a teachers in-service training conference (G. on

the theme "Ervironnental Education in Projects'':

What we are concerned with is "Life" an schools.

Ideas are important to promote action.

Nothing works without imolvement.

If there are no initiatives then all projects die.

Quality cannot be organised.

The Important thing is not schemes, ideas, theories but
involvement. Where should w© make a start’

Should we offer models or introduce new elements into teacher
training’ What we want to achieve emotionally in the pupil
should already be present in the teacher.

(quoted from W. Habnch and E. Kohler I98I).

REFERENCES

Bossing N.L. I935 Progressive Methods of Teaching in Secondary
Schools. Boston.

Dewey J , and W H Kilpatrick. 1935 Der Projektplan. Grund-
legung und Praxis. Weimar.

Frey, Stottele Weichert 1976. Bawne sterben lelse, Schuler
’icampScn gegen den ’Bairrftoci. Ttelts Witheim, 'Basle.

Geisler, W. Scholz, G. Schweim, L. 1978. Projektorientirrter
Untemcht. 2nJ edition, Weirtieim/Basle

Habrlch, W. and E. Kohler 1981. Umwelterziehung in Projekten -
Ergebnisse des Alteitierg-Sendmrs der Deutschen ihwelt-
Aktlon Beitrage zur Umelterziehung. Vol. 2. Centre for

Ewirotwental Education, University of Essen Essen.

Kasnsel, Ton. I98I Projektunterrlcht- didaktischer Ort und
unterrichtliche Realiaation. p 608-62B In TVellniann
Walter- Hatdbuch fur Schule uiil Untemcht Dusseldorf.

Hartlieb U 1981. Em erfruelicher Bericht aus der Schulpraxas:
Umweltjtestaltunr eines verwahrlosen Tisnpels zim j^eachutzten
Peuchtjtebiet p 17-27 J«» Infonnationen 8 of the Centre

for Ervirojirental Education University of Essen Essen.

Hera, W. and B. Streeker 1981 Erfolgreiehe Unwelterziehung in
einer Groflstadtachule- Oargestellt am Beispiel der Rettung
eines Feuchtgebietes Im Rard bereich der Stadt Dasseldorf ,
durch die Arbeitsgemelnsehaft Unweltschutz der JarvWellertw
Schule p 10-20 In Infomationen 9 of Ihe Centre for
Envirotmertal Eduation, University of Essen, Essen.

Kaiser A ard F -J. Kaiser (Editors) 1977 Projektstudiun und
Proiektarbeit in der Schule. Bad Heilbninn.

Kassner P, 1975* 2in Proiekturtcmcht. Unter bcsonderer Beruck-
sjcbtigung des Fachbereichea Cesellschaftslehre. In Vester-
maniB Padagogische Beitrage 3.

Laubis J. 1976. Vorhaben urd Prejekte im Unterricht. Ravensburg.

Reintges, B. 1978 Projekt und Projektmethode In der oktuellen
didaktiseber und bildungspolitischen Diskussion. in Stach.
R (Ed) Proiektorlentienter l/nlertcht. Theorle uril Praxis
Ratinger/Kasteliaun

Roseler, R. 1978. Vorauasetzurgen und Vorbcreitung pro,iekt-orien-
tierten Lernena. p. 35-^3 In Geisler W G. Scholz anJ
L. Schweim (Eds) Projektorlentlerter Untemcht. 2nl ed.
Wei rhsim/iysle.

Stach. R. (Ed.). 1978 Pro(ektorientierter Unterricht Ratingen/
Kastellaun

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN JAPAN

Jun Ul*

INTRODUCTiaS

Along process cf industrializsticn and irodemizationi
severe destruction of the environment has occxirred in Japan tr
the extent of damage to hximan health and lives that the vord
Kogai, expressing heavy pollution, has become internationally
known. Kith a view to reduce pollution, there has been much
effort made towards environmental education.

CnMronmental E:ducation in public education

In the framework of traditional formal school education,
environmental descriptions were scattered among various textbooks
on language, science geography, history, social studies, and so
on. In 1970'8, the existence of pollution was finally written in
the textbooks to some extent, but its description was made as
simple as possible, hithout dwelling on the causes, it was de8»
cribed as past incidents which were solved successfully by the
•ffeirt of the industry and the government. Under a strict censor-
ship cf the government, the description of war and pollution were
the most critical items where the Hinistry of Education tried to
rewrite the drafts frequently. During the past one century, the
attitude of the national government was always regarding pollu-
tion issues as security probletos, and this attitude was refeleted
in formal education. The description of environmental problems in
the textbooks is superficial, and it is difficult to get the
general picture of Japanese environment from the school textbooks.

In spite of such strong regulation of educational contents,
there have been many active cases of true environmental education
at the grass-root level, by the school teachers in primary,
secondary, and high schools, on local pollution and other envi-
ronmental problems everywhei^ in Japan. They are the best envi-
ronmental scientists in this country. The contents of the educa-
tion IS starting from some certain items such as science and
social studies, naturally and inevitably becomes an interdiscip-
linary and synthetic study. A part of such local studies are
reported in the annual research conference of Japan Teachers
(/nion, and this conference is a good information source on pollu-
tion studies.

President, Asian Environmental Society.
Vniversitij of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Sine? tnid-70s, as th? ?nwircm»i»ntal disrupticn and pclluticn
becam? so visible and it vas one of the iDfst urgent domestic
issues in Japanese poJiticSj the national gfvernnenC established
the departments of environmental science and technlogy in a dozen
national universitiea. But the concent of these departments is a
mosaic of existing eectirns of science and technology related to
the environment, saeh as botany, zcclcgy, sanitation, landscape,
gardening, and so on, generally too fragmentary and technical.
There was no originality in theory and methodology, so they
remained at a low level. Many avoid tc touch the actual problems
under their eyes, arguing they are ten political and difficult.
Or this point, bettor work has been done in the field of social
sciences in general.

Environmental education in the industry

There are two categories of environmental education in the
industry, One le the training of engineers for the certification
of pollution prevention, by individual industry or a group of
them. By lav, each factory larger than a certain size shruld
hire an engineer vitn a certificate of crlluticn prevention,
which la issued through a national examination. This training is
mostly teehnieali and there is little component of ercial and
historical science, but it is the largest effort of the industry
in this field.

Another is the public relation activity of the industry for
surrounding local residents, enphaaizing how nruch attention is
paid for the protection of the environment by the industry. A
large sun Of money is spent for purpose to prepare the ooxaks,
pamphlets and film. For long time in the process of industriali-
sation of Japan, the industry did not need special effort for
public relation because its social image was sc. nigh with the
contribution to the employment and the local eccnemy, in spite of
some negative problems such as pcllutirn and labour accidents
until 1960s. But the behaviour of the industry in industrial
pollution in 19d0s and in the oil crisis in 1973, greatly harmed
the social mage of the industry, so in 1970s Lt 'needed, sonte
investment into public relation to increase its social imaaey^and
♦•he. ‘V'lV.’.innffimhA?. 'ruuuvw 'ar.'iuIa<. inrtui-rfj.’iy^ru SSixa'Vi'nn.h..''*

The government sponsored MCO's are working in the same'^field
as the industry. They have generally much money, "but the ^tlvity
18 rather limited, because they can not criticize the government
and the industry. Many teaching materials are prepared by 'these
DGOs for the public relation of the gcvernmenCal policies.

Informal environmental education by N<^9.

Perhaps the largest part of Jaoanese environmental education,
both in quality and quantity, is the informal education in NGO

actiM^y The degree rf environmental disruption has been so
severe •’hat a special wcrd “Kogai" was commcnly used in oaily
conversaticn and administrative jargon for heavy environmental
pollution damaging human health For any sGU activity against
Kogai IS needed continuous self-educatio>n w'thin the NGO, because
of strong power of the industry and the government which caused
Kogai A considerable part of the history of anti-pollution
movement was also the histox^ of educational movement. Already at
the end of last century, in the history of Ashio Copper Mine
Poisoning incident, Tanaka Shore, the leader of anti-pollut ion
movement of farmers, requested to the young farmers m the move-
ment to study the population of each village, to count the birth
and death statistics in the villages, for the evaluation of
health effect of mining pollution. T e level of statistics for
the decline oif birth rate and the increase of death rate was
qui’-e high at that time, and useful for the movement and the
education cf young fanners.

The anti-pollution movement of Hishima and Numazu against
petrochemical complex project in 1964, was supported by the
scientific study of local conditions by inhabitants, led by local
high schorl teachers, and ended in success. The relationship
be'ween the operation of petrochemical complex and its pollution
was studied carefully, and an envircnmental impact assessment was
prepared by local people. People studied micrc-meteorclogical
survey of the area with Nay carp flag Here than 3D0 study meet-
ings were held among local people, to learn and exchange the
knowledge of pollution before the final rejection of the project.
Since the success of this movement, informal environmental self-
education became the necessary condition for the success of
environmental movemnt, and in most movements, the leaders are
local school teachers, and they are respected locally as grass-
root 8Cien»is*’s in spite of rather poor payment. Their work is
reported in the annual research conference of Japan Teachers
bnion, and the meeting provides a gc-cd chance to know the general
picture cf Japanese pollution V€»ge*'ation and coins are good
indicators of pollution, even the detec*-ion of radioactive leak
IS measured by tne measureitpo* of gene mutation in the flagella
of stamens of spiderwort. The inforiral education by NGOs is
forming a kind of national network An^i-pollution movement is
actually a self-educating movement led by school teachers, of
lower middle class, giving some impact to local politics. Also
there are many local nature conservancy movements such as bird
watchers and nature Waers, and several hundred movements are
iorroing a national network in Japan Union of Nature Conservancy.

The Experience of Jishu-fCoza

As a typical example of environmental education mevetnent, I
would like to describe my own experience in Jishu-Koza, Kogai-

Genron, poUutaon theories, which were a kind of voluntary lec-
tures in the University of Tokyo. tt wae started by a research
assistant ir 1970 as a night class for citizens, to study the
basic principles of dacjanese pollution and to find the ways to
stop or reduce pollutirn by the mcvement of citizens. Like Euro-
pean private dczent, the lecture was open to public in the vacant
class-room in the Univeraity of Tokyo by a young assistant.
Everyone ..ould enter the class after depositing small money (100
Ven), but if the lecture la not interesting, or if it 18 not
understood, one could request for the refund. This is a traditio-
nal way cf ecme public amusement in Japan. The fee was used for
the preparatirn of the lectures, such as printing. The lectures
were quite successful, and volunteers came out of the audiences
to help the preparation end the management cf the Lectures. They
worked for the recordinq of the lecture, then the recording was
prir'ed and published, for ten volumes of berks, and sold in the
market. Here than 200,000 copies were sold in total, and they
became the textbeoks fer anti-pcliuticn movement all ever Japan.
In 1972, the cititeng committee of Jishu-kota sent the delegation
OF pollution victims of 'iinamata disease and Kanemi Rice Oil
disease to Stockholm (jv Conference on Homan Environment, to
expose the severity of Japanese pollution, to give warning to the
whole world. The comittee was also working as s focal point of
informal network between many local citizens movemenr, distribu-
ting the information and the experience on pollution. More than
3C0 lectures were held, sometimes inviting the victims, resear-
chers, administrators, journalists, politicians, and other social
components related to pollution, and perhaps several thousands of
people attended the lectures in 15 years. Since 1973, the impor-
tance of international cooperation was noticed, end the publica-
tion of English Kogai newsletters were started. In 1979, Jishu-
Koza held the first Regional seminar for Asian environment, in
cooperation with Indian Environmental Society, and revived the
activity of Asian Environmental Society, which was formed in 1971
but had became dormant after several years of activity. Jishu-
Koza was closed in 1985 after IS years activity. For several
reasons including the change of status and working place of the
initiator^ but many activities which were started hy J^abn-Xrtza^
are developing as independent movements, and remain active here-
after. The information center acciwiTy of Jishu-Koza will be
succeeded by JUNC. in general, the initial purpose of Jishu-Koza
was an emergency expedient for violent acute type of industrial
pollution, so more long-term measures for nature conservancy
should be formed in a more stable organization.

The experience of Jishu-Kosa la that even an assistant can
prepare a suitable field, the exiiz^ns are able to organise
themselves in the self-educating activity, and can achieve much
mere in the prevention cf pollution than a department cf Univer-
sity system, it gave also a possible way of university reforma-

tion and revitalization of higher education system in informal
environmental education.

Effect of the Environmental Education in Japan

Japanese environment was greatly polluted in 19S0s and 608,
and recovered to some extent in 708 for various reasons, but the
largest reason was the local movetnents by the victims and the
citizens. It was supported by aforenenticned self-educating acti-
vity of local inhabitants. Here we see a great achievement of
environmental education in Japan.

Many of movements by local people were against gigantic and
excessive plans of industrialization and development, resulted in
a slow down of Japanese industrialization process, and the ironic
stabilization of the industry after 1973. This was a kind of
negative participation into political process by resistance. In
Japan, we had so many cases of pollution in past, so it was
possible to have general theory of pollution by the critical
analysis of cases to find the cause of the failure.

Japanese pollution control laws and Iccal ordinances were
prepared by the pressure of the movement of victims and local
citizens. They have punishment clause and applied to the worst\
industry in some cases, so they were surely quite effective in
the actual education of the industry In the prevention of pollu-
tion. Punishment is a part of education, so it is effective as a
part of environmental education for the industry. Even civil
court cases were effective to reduce pollution because the issue
gave social damage in the image of industry, and some degree of
prevention and reduction of pollution was forced on the industry.

In this process, the role of mass media was very large.
Most of Japanese media are commercial, and vulnerable to the
pressure of strong industry. But in most cases of pollution, the
issues were the problems of social injustice and many journalists
worked in the cause of justice to report the issues. Even commer-
cial media had to report pollution issues inspite of the pressure
from the industry. Also many independent journalists, and artists
worked especially in visual art such as photographs, pictures,
films and so on. Local movements published various pamphlets and
small magazines, and educational, scientific facts were always
important part of the contents.

Problems in Theory

Vinti’i new, the pressure oT industrialization and moderniza-
tion has been so strong in Japan, the negligence and relinquish-
ment of tradition has been so hurried, that the traditional
natural ideology of animism and Eastern relativism of Buddhism
''er® forgotten, and they were not used for synthetic understand-
ing of nature. Especially this failure is seen in higher educa-

tiMVi in ttaqnnticft of •nvlreim^BMl education Ir unlv^r-
rh(* envirfnrpcn*-al ^Jiucaticn is a mcsaic ct past divisirns
it ia tro ?CPnonic, crient^d, and tt re3ards *ha na'-urf'

rnly as rpsfurtr(»s. Its efn*i*n' is fraomental reductionism. Until
nfw, syn’Tit'Hc (^cftf^ieal vi*wpcint of tiaCura and wcrld i« in Che
process of formatarn, and at vail take some tame to establish.
Past frameworks of academiEn and indusCraalized science vere
powerless to understand the nature and Che envirpnirent. In my 25
years experience, academic methodology which was cbtained in the
university was tco powerless. Facing the reality of Minamata
disease, t had to start from an engineer, learn local economy,
sociology, and legal science through action. Hereafter, the
environmental sciences should be fcnred and learnt through action
in a transdieeiplinary way.

In many scientific conferences in Asia, frequently I had the
sa-ne question, what is the role of intellectuals who learnt
western science and its value system, in the Asian traditional
society. The conclusion from own erperience is Chat it is the
role of travelling merchant carrying experience and inforroaticn,
and the role of good actor for expression. Zt la necessary to
chocBe proper theory which matched the needs of local conditions,
and the technique of performance.

Future of environmental Education

It is now clear that academic science snd ita successor,
industrialized science are both powerless for the detection and
solution of the envircnmental problems. Now it is necessary to
develop a kind of life science nr service science, s reassembled
system according to the needs and the necessity of people. It
will be s quite different system from previous ones.

Z propose to reassemble liberal art courses of univ'ersity
system, using ny own experience in Jiahu^Koza in informal envi-
ronmental education. For instance, the social science students,
who constitute lO-SOX of Japanese university students, have few
chances to use in their life mathemattes and chemistry which are
new taught in the liberal art course. These natural sciences can
be rearranged into an environmental science in transdisciplinary
way, It will be an important initiative for future activity as
managers and bureaucrats. In the same way, students in natural
science and technology, need environmental study within modern
history and the history of science and technology, to understand
the social and cultural side of science and technology. The
contents of education will be more action oriented, and problem
solving way, than in the present system, students will understand
the importance of transdisciplinary study of the environment.
Simple facilities of the science laboratory in eenwon secondary
schools which are available everwhere may be exploited for such
studies.

Physical Pitting

PhysicxjTBphically PaViatan can tx* divided irto three najor
units: the northern freuntain*. the western hiahlands and the
Indus plain. If twe» iMoinary lines are drawn on the aceorpanyino
map (ria. Ill one from Khyber pass to Islamabad and another from
Islamabad to a little vest of Karachi, then rouqhly the northern
msuntalns are north of the first line, and the Western hiahlands
to the west of the second line, and the Indus plain to the east
of the same line.

The northern fwuntains are the meeting place of three great
fpountain ranges of the world, the Karakoram, the Himalayas and
the Hindukush. Virtually all elevations here are higher than
3.500 n above sea level, more than half are above 4,500 m and
more than fifty peaks are above 6,700 m. The area also abounds In
glaciers, some of which are the laroeat in the world, outside the
polar region, of course. These glaciers feed the Indus river and
its tributaries which form the life line of Pakistan's irrigation
system. The vast drainage area of the Indus corresponds roughly
to the provinces of Pungab and Sind. The Indus plain in Pungab
varies from about tSO to 300 n and consists of fine alluvium
deposited by the Indus, and its five tributaries, i.e. Jhelun,
Chenab. Ravi, Sutle) and Beas. Southward in Sind, the plain
differs in that it ia lever in altitude and was formed by the
deposit of only one river, i.e. the Indus and the alluvium here
la ef trere recent character. The Indus plain is bounded on the
west by highlands which are lower than northern ireuntain In
altitude end are aleo relatively mere arid. The aridity inereasea
In these highlands as one moves fro.ti North Weat frontier Province
In the north to the Baluchistan province in the South. Pakistan
1b basically a dry country of the warm temperate yone. Great
climatic differencea prevail from the northern mountains down to
the aeaeoast in the eKtrame south, but the country's general
climatic character is one of aridity. Annual precipitation except
in the northern highlands avernges less than 250 irr», decreasing
from north to south and the country’s agricultural baseis largely
dependent on the extensive system of Irrigation by canals. In
swse areas where irrigation water is not available deaert condi-
tions prevail as In Thar desert (Fig. 1) and extensive parts of
Baluchistan .

Biotic Setting

In the scheme of 1U3N classification of the biogeographleal
provinces of the world, Pakistan falla under two major realms,
i.e. the Palaearctie realm comprising the northern and western
mountains, and the tndo-Halayan realm extending over the eastern
lowlands and the Himalayan frontier* In the north. The realms
also have a variety in their biogeographleal provinces. The

Setr*' studios and action also Btarted in physical planning parti-
cularly in laroo citios 1 itto Karachi, Lahoro and Poshnwari etc.
LiKewise rural deselopmen* also receiied ecwo attention through
introduction of a local oovernment proqran Each of these actions
related to improiewent of the humatt environment or re'fourcp
cortseriatinn in one form or another Mei,e^er these still remained
isolated actions and the fundatrental premise that the national
deielepment should not he wasteful and that resources should he
u*^ili2ed as trust for future generation «.a*? bMI! not rocoani-ed
Cespite the induction of a system of local goiennmpnh in the
deieloprenr orocess, the gualitv of life theme did not receive
recognition ,

Environmental Concern 197?-1^05

The period 1972-PS mn Ic® a mijor brealf*‘hrough m the attitude
oF both people ind ro^ernfnent of PaWifitan towards eniironmental
Breaervatlon , fefore 1972, the cocnminicaticn pedve remnmed vir-
tually silent and penhans was blissfully ignorant of the subiect
of pollution and environmental hasards Today the newspapers are
replete with the stories drawing national attenticn to continual
environmental degradation, Even casual readme of the newspapers
particularly the sections dealing with letters from the readers
reveal orowing pollution, A radom sample wr^uld include complaints
aoainat the alarming effects of wastes diseharced from certain
industrial projects, against industrial odors and unbearable
noise in residential areas as veil as unsatisfactory sanitation.
The scientific societies and learned bodiee are also holding open
forutra, seminars end eynposla to hiohlioht the epNironmenta!
prtibleirs andX issues. Thr Scientific Society of Pakistan in one
of itfl session focussed on the stite of the Cuaide Arim Mausoleum
(most inipartant national iponuirent) resulting from the cnsiai-ght
of air pollution in Karachi. The nun4>er of research papers deal-
ing with different aspects of etivirotuneotel problems and issues
have also increased proportionally in the BcientifieS^oumals of
the country.

The incrMsing awareness of environmental dcorodatlon has
shown visible impacts on the oovemrentel policies and prooram-
mes. As stated earlier there were certainly a number of steps
taken prior to 1972 to individual problem areas of Pakistan's
environment such as water looqinq and salinity, deforestation,
siltation, fisheries and wildlife etc. but the idea that such
isolated concern should be evaluated and coordinated under broa-
der perspective was one truly significant cuteome nf the Stock-
holm Conference. The federal qovemieent took up the Issues raised
in Stockholm and directed that an Imnediate examination be made
to the steps which should be taken to meet the threat to the
human environment in Pakistan. Subsequently the Ministry of
Presidential Affairs convened a meeting of experts concerned with

various asoects of environment in November 1972. A ma^or outcome
of this meetino was the formation of a committee on Human Envi-
ronment to make necessary reconroendations. The co mm ittee submit-
ted a report in April 1973 mateinq a number of recommendations.
The report stressed that the naqnttude and complexity of the
problem of environmental dearadation required an uraent atten-
tion and needed dealinq in a eomprehensiie manner. It called for
a two pronged approach embraching both the Jonq-ranqe preventive
and short term curative measures, so that economic development
would not produce ..."chaotic human environment, poor livina
conditions and serious deqeneration of the environment".

Another major positive development of 1973 was constitutional
■mandate for the preservation of environmment . The federal focal
point of oeneral environmental matter was also gradually strenq-
■‘hened. The function of looking after general environmental mat-
*^ers was entrusted to the Ministry of Prodnetion, Industries.
Town Planning and Agrovilles in 1972, However, the Ministry of
Science and Technology looked after many issues dealing with
general environment. A new Environment and Urban Affairs Division
was created within the Ministry of Housing, tvorks and Urban
Development in 1975 and the responsibilities for all general
environmental matters were shifted to this Div’iBion. The efforts
of this division have helped in the enactment of Environmental
Legislation of Pakistan in December, 1963. This act has resulted
in the creation of an Environmental Council of Pakistan with the
President of the country as its Chairman. The council will super-
vise the efforta for safeguarding the environment and approve the
environmental policies, an important input within which would be
the sector of environmental education.

ETAflRONMENTAL EDOCATIW

Present Status

The subject of environmental studies is not taught as a
separate discipline m elementary or higher education at present.
The existing system has "infusion approach" based on incorpora-
tion of environmental education within the appropriate traditirn-
al subjects. The idea is to avoid adding another subject to the
already congested school curriculum. At grad'oate level, the need
for an interdisciplinary course in "environmental studies” has
been growingly realised as an ideal situation but the limited job
«3pi?Qctujn.tu?s. ui tjjfl •sy.iAKwii wt vap tva'te tb*-

lishment of a separate graduate prugramne in the field, Untill
now it IS taught as an elective course in Biological or Natural
Sciences. The situation in out of school forum or non-formal
education is the least satisfactory. In a country where only a
little more than a quarter of the population is literate the
ecological or environmental education, in past had a narrow range

in-6»rviee training prograirtne in Ertvironfliffital Bfueation. Sida by
side, the Literacy and Maas Education Corwiasion is striving to
encerrpasg effectively various aspects of environmental conserva-
tion in its mass literacy campaign.

HCTERENCES

Govt, of Pakistan, Planning Oamlsslon. 1983. The Sixth Five Tear
Plan 1963-88. Islamabad.

Johnson, O.C.L. 1979. Pakistan The Land and the People. Keine-
msnn, London.

Khan, M.A. 1963, Resource Potential of Karakoninj Himalayan Region
in the National Development of Pakistan. Science, Technology
and Development 2,1. Islamabad.

Khan, H.A. 1961. Glaciers of Pakistan. Pakistan Pictorial S, 4
and S. Islamabad.

Udvardy, M.O.T. 1975. Classification of Biogeographical Provinces
of the world, ruCN Occasional Paper 18. Switzerland.

tOian, H.h. 1962. Forests of Pakistan. Pakistan Pictoriel 6,1.
Islamabad.

Govt, of Pakistan, Population Census Organisation. 1991. Popula-
tion and Housing Census Bulletin 2. Islamabad.

Coimittee on Human Environment. 1973, Human Environment in Pakis-
tan Problems, Prospects snd Prepesals. Islamabad.

National Acad. Higher Education, Vniv. Grants Comission. 1984.
Proceedinos of the National Morkshop on Interdisciplinary
Approach in Curriculum Development in Higher Education.
Islamabad.

OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR TRAINING ECOLOGISTS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS IN SRI LANKA

S. Balasubramaniain* and R.N. deFoneska**

Ecolpoicaj approach to p)anninq and davolopm^nt is now widely
accepted as a ®ourd pathway for harnessina the natural resources
of a coun*’ry for the betterment of its people. Sri Lanka has a
rich, \aried and interesting fauna and flora. It has a variety of
tropical habitats- natural and man made- of itrwense scientific
and aesthetic value, forming an important part of the national
wealth of the country. This tropical island with an area of ca.
65000 sg. km has well over 3600 species of vascular plants. The
flora is also unicue in having as much as 25% of endemic ferns
and floverino plants. The island is also bestowed with bountiful
water, mineral and animal resources. Its climatei physioaraphic
features and oeologieal history have laroely contributed to the
rich and interesting wealth of plants and animals.

The first recorded collection of plants of Sri Lenka was made
by Paul Hermann during 1C72>1679 and these w^re catalogued by J,
Burman in his Theasarus Zeylanieus in 1737. Hermann's collection
was confined largely to the neighbourhood of Colombo. C. Linnaeus
arranged Hermann’s plant collection according to hia proposed
system and this work was published sn the form of a catalogue
under the title Flora Zeylamea in 1747 (see hbeywiekrema 1959).
Sn Lanka has the unigue distinction ©f having some of the plants
named by Linnaeus according to his binomial system. Linnaeus was
able to determine about 429 taxa leaving 228 species undetermined.
In the early nineteenth century. Moon <18241 compiled a
catalogue of the indigenous and exotic plants of Ceylon, and
arranged them according to the Linnaesn system with their local
Sinhala names. This catalogue comprises 1127 species of which 164
were considered new to botanical science. The catalogue also
included 3S6 cultivated plants.

The next eminent and serious student of Sn Lanka's Botany
was G.H.K, Thwaites. His botanical studies culminated in the
publication of Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylaniae (Thwaites 1859-
1664). This extremely accurate and important publication formed
the basis for Henry Trimen's (1893-1900) comprehensive 5-volume
handbook of the Flora of Ceylon. The Handbook still remains the
only complete description with keys for the identification of all

* University Dept of Botany, Peradeniya, 5rl Lanka

*• University Dept of Botany, Colombo, sn Lanka

101

th^ recorded flow^rino plants of Sri LanVa. it is coneidarf^ as
on^ of the rest coirprehensvve floras of a tropical country.

Taxonomic studies were not pursued for well over half a
century after that until Xbeywiekrema (1959) produced an updated
check list of the Ceylon Flora. In irore recent tires there has
been a renewed interest in taxonomic studies and these were
initiated laroely under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in 196G. Thin proqrawee had as its taroet complete revision
and updatina of Tritnen a tronumental work. Dunna the past 16
years, four volumes have been published and these coier 50 anaip-
sperm families (Daesanayke and Fosbera 1980-83). it can now he
said that the plant life of Sri Lanka has been studied nnd well
documented for over two centuries by foreian and local natural-
ists and taxononisfs.

For a serious student etnbarking on ecoloqical studies well
documented checklists and identification manuals are available.
The student is also fortunate in havirq a variety of relatively
undisturbed natural habifafs for rwrsuirq the eeoJoqical studips.
Vhile the lowlands have a temperature rancing from 25 to 30 *C,

the Central highlands have a more moderate mean temperature
epproachirg mild temperate climate. The south-western reoipn and
the central hiahlands receive n rainfall ranoinq from 2D0 cm to
500 cm while the extreme north-west and the southeastern parts of
the island experience well marked dry periods where the annunl
rainfall is between 7S cm and 12S cm. Sn Lanlca has the added
advantage of having 9 of the 10 mayor soil types.

One s«uld have considered that all this would form potential
areas for very fertile ecological studies. Heweveri there has
been very limited ecoloqical work during the Colonial and post-
independence periods. The few ecological studies earned out by
foresters and their vegetation classification have limited ecolo-
gical value. The very few ctudies that have been carried out
using nvimerical and analytical techniques are restricted to man-
made qraaslands (Holmes 1951 > some forest ecosystems (De Rosaryo
1950) and a salt marsh (Chapman J9d7). Estuarine mangroves, fresh
water marshes and wetlands have not been hitherto subject to
modem ecological analysis.

The accelarated river valley development progran^re embarked
during the past two decades brouqht laroe areas under cultivation.
The new human settlements and agricultural areas present many
social and environmental problems. These newly opened land areas
and the major agricultural, industrial and urban settlemenC proa-
raiwnes toupther wltt) the free trade rone have laid a firm founda-
tion for the sustainable orowth as well as for improvement of the
quality of life of our people. Ve have made massive investments
in providing infrastructure facilities essential for the life of
the eoRwunity such as irriqationj power and water supply. All
these projects need careful and continuous monitorinq and study
in detail. Such studies have been pursued hut at a very low key

102

partly du»“ to lack of ewarrneas amenq dreiBlon makers and partly
because of the tremendous dearth of suitably trained personnel.

As IS the case of tnost countries basic ecoloaxcal and envi-
ronmental trainino has to be iirparted by tertiary educational
institutions. However, this is seriously hampered by the shortage
of qualified teachers and researchers at our Universities. Our
enumeration shows that there are not more than 6 trained ecolo-
cists in the 9 Universities in the island. To this fiqure even if
one adds on those workinq on what may be considered as the peri-
pheral area*; of ecoloqical science, the total does not exceed 12,
Thus, the lack of trained manpower le the major constraint res-
trictinq traininq and research in ecology, seriously hamperinq
environmental assessments on developmental programmes.

Recent Government policy quite rightly demands that an envi-
ronirn-enta] impact assessment be made available before embarking
on any ma^nr developmental or industrial undertaVinq. This makes
it all the more necessary to increase th* output of or'^duates
equipped with ecoloqieal knowledge and ekills.

More recently (19821 a Central Environmental Authority was
established. Some of the middle level poets at this Authority
are now manned by a few who have been trained under the Masters
ProqreiTBne of training in Environmental Science provided by the
University of Colombo. This Post-graduate prooramne was conside-
rably assisted and partly funded by the British Government under
their overseas development assitance prograime. foreign assist-
ance continued for a few years and it is now left for sri Lanka
to put in the necessary inputs for the continued success of this
programme.

It IS reeomended that

(a) The dearth of trained ecologists and environmentalists be
remedied by an iirenediate expansion of the facilities available at
Colombo and other selected technical and University level Insti-
tutions. The programme should be able to enroll about double the
present number. There should also be a review of the curriculum
followed by periodic evaluation gearing the traininq to meet the
environmental needs of the country for which it caters.

(b) Undergraduate students be encouraged to pursue studies in
Ecology and Environmental Biology by making them aware of employ-
ment opportunities. On employment such graduates should be given
special incentives if located in remote villages or when working
in development projects in difficult etationa.

(c) The planning for education, research and training in
environmental sciences should be so done that all the disciplines
would get their proper place in this pluridiscipllnary science.
This is a necessity at all levels, secondary, tertiary and higher
schools. Our system of education for some reason or other does
not permit this as nothing appears to leak out from one another,

(d) Short-term courses for revamping the techniques and skill
of bioBcience teachers in the teaching Of ecology.

103

(e) Production of books and materials be strenqthened ,

(f) Presentation of popular articles on ecology in the langu-
age assimilable to the public.

(g) Exchange of teachers preferably from the region for Post-
craduate programs.

1 am sure you would agree that any education, ecological or
environmental education being no exception is meaningless unless
it reaches grass root levels - end that being the conwon man. In
order to achieve this we must always remember that an important
interphase exists between acientiats and decision makers. We nrust
exert considerable tact to keep it alive at all times. Finally
let U3 remember the words of Rene Dubos (1969),

"We shall soon experience an environmental collapse unless
a graaaroot movement mokee it imperative that public and
scientific establishments give high priority to the study
and control of the forces that are rapidly making the
earth a place unfit fer human life ■.

PF-FfRENCES

Abeywickrema, O.Jk. 1959. Check liat of the Ceylon Flora, Ceylon
J. Sci., Biol. Sci. 2(2).

Bunnann, J. 1737. Theaaurua ZeyJanicue.

Chapman, V.J. 1947. The application of aerial photography te eco-
logy aa exemplified by the national vegetation of Ceylon.
Indian Forester 73 <7J .

Dassanayake, M.D. and F.R. Fosberg. (Eds.). 1980-1983. A Revised
Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Volume 1-4. Amerind Publi-
shing Co. Pvt Ltd., Kew Delhi.

De Rosaryo, R.A. 1950. Ecological conceptiona end veqetatlonal
types with special reference to Ceylon. Tropical Agricul.
turifit 106* 108 - 121.

Dubos, Rene 1969. Kan, Medicine and Environment, The New American
Library-Hentor edition.

Holmes, C.H. 1951. The grase, fern and savannah lands of Ceylon,
their nature and ecological significance. Imperial Forestry
Institute, University of Oxford, paper 29.

Linnaeus, C. 1747. Flora Zeylanica Rolmiae.

Moon, A. 1824. A Catalogue of the Indigenous and Exotic Plants
growing in Ceylon. Colombo.

Thwaites, G.H.K. 1859-1864. Enumeratto Plantarum Zeylaniae.

Triiren, H. 1893-1900. A Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Vol. 5,
Daleu and Co., London.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Reinhold E. Lob*

PART A GENERAL ASPECTS
Administrative and Coiatitutioiial fundamentals

Like most of the European countries the Federal Republic of
Germany has been participatiii/t in the jtlobal UNESCO program
Enviromental Education from its very beginning As a result of
the conferences In Belgrade and Copetfiagen and finally of the
1977 conference in Tbilisi ervironnental education made itself
heard and attention was paidto not merely by pedagogical research
but also by administrative bodies In the Federal Republic of
Germany public schools are in the responsibility of various
Federal Mimaters of Education In a loiot conference in 19ti0
these mimstera decided to declare eivironnental education as
compulsory upon the curricula of German schools Consequently,
more and more ervironnental curricula were integrated into the
schedules of the various school aubiects Already in 197B the
Federal Goverrment s CoutKil of EivironnerTtal Experts had funda
mentally been integrated into the natural sciences at the schools
of the Federal Republic of Germany biology geography bit!
chemistry Correspondingly it must he the task of the irmediate
future to Intensify the impact of ervironrental education on the
curricula of social sciences by promotit^ pedagogical and didae*
tical research by establishing coistitutiotcil frameworks anl by
encouraging the producers of school media anl textbookato support
such a developnient

Public and Private Institutions of Envirormental Education

Nearly all federal ministries particularly the ministries
of education and of agriculture and eivirorment have departmental
referees for aivirotniental education at their disposal At German
universities the following scientific institutions are working on
etvirormental education

Centre for Eivirommntal Education University of Essen
directed by Prof Dr Reirhold E Lob and

Institute for the Pedagogics of Natural Sciences University
of Kiel

* Centre for Environmental Education, Cesamthochschnle,
Universitut Essen, Essen, W. Cenany

lOS

Besides these iratitutions that both contributed in the
UnXSCO Pro^s-ine on Ewiromental Education fron its beeinrarw
various scientists at Ger-ian universities are devoted to etr/^iron
r'ental education The Federal Ajcency for the Ewirorment which is
subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior provides the
U^SCO infomatior departr^ent for environ^ntal education And
finally there are the jrreat orjcamsations for the protection of
the em^iroment that formed trarkin; groups on efvirofrental edu-
cation and re/nonal and local organisations deal with erviron-
tnental education at schools anl as part of adult education

Principles of Erviron^ntal Education

In our country enviroir^ntal education is regarded as an
education in the face of the survival crisis of the inluscrial
society and it is aiming at a fundairental and lifelong change of
the people s awareness and behaviour towards the protection of
the erviroment

Ervirotr»rTal education has to cortprise the education at
preparatory primary secorelary and trade schools as well as
adult education activities public relation and the press media
It IS however rot the task to establish ervirometrtal education
as a new school subject among the trsrlitiorol ones but the
aspects of erviromental education are regarded as to be integra-
ted into currioula already existing and developed in the future
so that ervirotmental education shouldnot be perceived as an
additioml or separate but as an integral aspect of education.
Ihia system imtiated promoted and fostered b>’ geverrmentsl and
university activities proved to be so effective that todav a
broad wave of ewiromental awareness can be recogmted on all
levels of education

PAfrr B SPECIAL ASPECTS
ErvirotTnental Education in Schools

Not only as a consequence of the UNESCO proeraTi EnvironT'en'
tal Education the iioverments of the Geman Federal States
implerienteri emnrofrnental topics in the classical school subiects
geography biology and chemistry being the most irrportant. Parti-
cular efforts must still be undertaken as far as social sciences
politics history the fine arts theology and philosopliy are
concerned.

This IS rather -syriptoBiatical of the state of awareness of
envirorriental problems In our country. Ihs aspects of technology
and natural sciences are acknwrledged promoted and supported by
lots of money educational aspects reroin on the seany side We
are still so optimistic to believe that the problems could be

106

aolve'l bv erv i roi»reJ>tal We seem to i pj»re that only

man s chanseH awarei«ss of the eiviroiment is the essential basis
on which technical aiH scientific meins can be put into opera-
tion A lot of work has still to be Hoi» in our schools enlarcins
social sciences by en^Airoiinental aspects.

The many applicatiom to our institution jtive us a notice of
the activities of the school teachers We have cot the impression
that there is a lot of interest because both teachers atrl pupils
are comtantly asking for workin* materials Very often however
we are not able to answer the requests coniprehensivelv but con-
fine ourselves to deliver current publication list* The pupils
are working on proiects to reduce eiergy consumption thev lay
out ecological school gardens clean up pnids and remove garbage
from creeks. We very often receive proiect reports worth distri-
buting all over the country to avoid utproductive parallel work
But as stated before we are mt able to follow all requests from
pupils and teachers because a larger ai»l efficient information
centre is still missing We often regret not being ableto support
engaged teachers in a way they should be supported

Working Materials on Ervironnental Education

Quite obviously the publishers of text books atvl working
materials for schools have recognized the boom but the contents
of their products uiderlie official regulations That is why the
standard textbooks are running behind the demarris for a m^ern
enviromental education and geographical or biological text
books of about 230 peges very often offer only 25 pages dealing
with eiviroitnental topics ’'Eiivironi>ent'' is still a topic among
others in textbooks as well as in the official regulations the
requested impact on all school subiects has not yet been realized
But moreover the purposes of many representatiots in school-
books must be critisized very often it seems to be intended only
to transfer environrental lacts but ix>t to change the eiviron-
mental awaret«ss As for garbage for example it is ask^d how a
dump is mamged but not what \he causes of the high amount of
garbage are aixl what can be done ag rat it But it must be
clearly stated that first of all thv ratural sciences began to
tackle envirounental topics

Tliis seems to ereure from the fact that for the time being
environtiental education has been adopted by the ratural sciences
as geography biology atxi chemistry. Their incliratiote deter-
mine the working materials believing that a multitude of facts
may change the pupils eiivironnental awareness Even if this
belief IS not based on solid grounds from a pedagogical or psy
chological point of view it must be the aim of an education in
the face of the global survival crisis to change man s behaviour
in order to protect the cnvirorment.

Besides these critical rerarks it can be stated that the

107

SCOOP Ql text books foj sctiools fccre receiitlv enlircefl bv various
rtirtacticsl mesm media of aiw kiifl proflucefl it*l distributed
b% traihtioivsl publisliers hut also by eiviroimenlal initiatives
atri other relevant crcaiusatioie but there are also the indus-
tries sunnottii’c those erforis bv variou* nvitencls Tbe jteieral
treid IS to provide teachers with wot ked out lessom accompanied
bv workinc sheets aiirt other «pe«lia directtv applicable This mate-
rial IS corpleted bv case studies of Koneral relevance.

Problems lit Teacher rraimne

Unlike scrre other countries in Europe oi»l overseas the
Federal Rcpuhtic of Germnv does mf cormut the teachers to loln
trniiurte courses after havine passed their examimtions. With
rejrard to ervirormental education otrl to ervirormeiitfll problems
tint become more arri more critical it roust be crticized ns deiiee-
reus that the uwtructors aiwl educators of the iwvt 7eT»ration,
livvi'e in a rapiHlv ai»l hazardously erowme world first have to
realize the problems arrl new tasks by themselves.

Numerous traiintw courses have been established by orficial
atirl private ii«titutioi« ae»t are to a remarkablv ^reat extent
atteiHeri bj teachers a greater leyiaot should however be achieved
tti the future Because the eiijtaped teactier has so matv chances ip
our country to enlaree his ktcwledpe of eivironncmai protection
It remaits to be seen if a voluntary aid persoinl enjraeement is
lot to briiw about better results than a cempulaery teacher
training would do

The Increase of firviroimental Activities at Umverslties

Reviewing the catalogs of semirars airi lectures of the diff-
erent discipliios at German umversities one gets the iirpression
that eiK'irciTnental topics have an iicreasinc inpact also in this
field for more airi more courses of studies take up aspects of
ewirorrsental protection Even if corresponding to envirormentaJ
education in schools the mtural sciences geography ard biology,
are still leading social sciences and give increasing prefereice
to eiyirormontal aspects Theological courses are held on ' s
Responsibility for the Lord s Creation' political semimrs dis-
cuss "Strategies to Succeed with Eiiviroiment Protecting Techno-
logies" in history the historical relatiom and development
trends of nwn s Impact on mture ore regarded All these activi-
ties show gratifying approach of the Gemvn universities towards
ervirounental aspects.

Classical subiects as laislscapc architecture, landscape
ecology gardening a»tl agriculture are remarkably enlarged by
eivirormental aspects Despite of financial problems ww courses
of studies came into being as for example Envirorr>enta L Chemical
Engineering Ecological Engineering at the University of Essen

108

and Tcmii and Country Planran^ with special reference to environ
mental protection Even if these activities cannot be regarded as
enkirofmental education in a narrow sense they show that German
universities have open ears to the interests of envirormental

Enviroirriental Education in Adult Education and in the Media

*limerciua private orgamsations and hobby groups as e g.
allotment gardeners, have enriched their training programs by
ervirem<ental education and achieved a remarkable respotse by
their mefTtoers. Art! it is particulsrly pleasing that the consu-
mer s behaviour is more end more influenced by envirotmeiital
aspects Sevspapers as well as the broadcasting and television
systems present regular features on ewironi'ental topics tr^ke
relevant suggestiora to change the behaviour and integrate incr-
easingly ersTirormental aspects into eiitertaiiment. It must be
clearly stated that there is no general trend continuously to
present shocking enviromental problers but the individual possi-
bilities to change the behavioural attitudes shall be made evi-
dent The i^jblic IS tTJl inclined to be bothered with horrifying
envirortnerrtal problems after a hard day of work and additional
to the political ard economic p'^lens. It was asked if etviron-
mental education could not be integrated jn shows or other er^ter-
taiments nay be even in thrillers First approaches have been
made and were accepted by the public.

EmnrotmerTtal Education in Agriculture

Seme years ago the European Council at Strasbourg establish-
ed the working group Crvirormental Education in Agriculture and
Forestry' that is also joint by the Federal Republic of Germany
It IS Its task to enable ervirotmental aspects a broader irrpact
on agriculture ard forestry nationally as well as interratioral-
ly. In the Federal Republic of Germany it is irterded to Improve
the curricula of agricultural schools by enviromental protection
and erviromiental education. First and satisfying results have
already been presented by the Rhemsh Agricultural Cha-ifeer that
coridted its schools to raise the oroportion of ensrirormental
aspects in sot^ subjects by 13 to 253<. It is intended to enlarge
these proportiors in other agricultural schools throughout the
Federal Replublic of Gennaiy.

booking at agriculture as a whole three fields suitable to
enviromental protection and emnronnental activities can be
recognized

1 general information aid training activities in the scope of

local aid regional agricultural societies,

2. the agricultural school system, aid
3 the agricultural press.

109

How the aspects of civironaental protection and the erivirotv
mental awareness car be enlarse<l in agriculture is currently
evaluated by a research prelect of the Centre for EnvironTtental
Education in Essen Thia will be the basis to support the efforts
of the federal aid mtioral imtitutions ard mimstrles.

CONCLUSIONS

Retrospectively it can be stated that after eijtfit years of
discussion about ervlromental education in the Federal Republic
of Germany itood proeress has been made as far as the natural
sciences at schools are concerned. The other acienees should be
promoted similarly In the future aid basic researcli is recently
urdertaken. an other aim will be to encourage field studies aid
research proiecte at schools and cm'ironneiital education centres.

Aid there are the training schools of the Federal Republic
of Gerrrany where ervlrorrrenta) education has recently been enfor-
ced ga in aericuitural schools, ewlronsental aspects are being
Integrated into the echedulea and curricula ^taide school it
can be recognized that etiviroitnetital protection activities ha\e
grown in mdier as far as adult education and professional train-
ing courses are concerned.

Of particular laportanee however is the growing environ
mental awaretpas of the media that provide as wide range of
reports of what kind soever. Ihe dcmimtiiig tasks of the near
future will therefore be to foster enriromientBl protection aid
the willingness to er^irctmental behaviour all ever the economic
and political life in our country.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN:
AN EDUCATIONAL APPROACH TO TACKLE THEM

E.C. Laurent*

Tht" i8laT\ds ©f the Caribbean Sea are made up of a img
arching chain which afre*’ches frem Cuba in the west t© Trinidad
in the South (Fig. 1). The colourful history cf this suh-regirn
has resulted in a variety of ethnic crmbi nat ions , languages,
dialects and ideologies tha* make this one of the (nos” in*-erest-
ing regions of the World. Over the past file centuries, these
islands have been governed for varying pericds of time by the
European Colonial powers like England. SpaiHi France and Kclland.
In more recen* times, however, most of the islands formed pare rf
the British Empire while the ether prwera retained some influence
in certain territonea. when agitation started among the cclcnies
of the British Empire for Independence, the British islands of
Caribbean and the British Colonies of Central and South America
inevitably made similar demands. Between 1962 and 19S4, twelve of
•he seventeen British Coilonies of the region beesme independent.
These include Guyana (formerly British Guyana) on the Sooth
American mainland, Belize (formerly British Honduras) in Central
America and the Bahama Islands off the coast of Florida, United
States of America. English has been maintained as the official
language of all these countries (Table I).

With the advent of Independence, the new countries of the
Caribbean were faced with the s'ark reality that the earning of
foreign exchange was absolutely necessary for survival in the
competitive world. Traditionally, their economies were based on
agriculture with the export of producee to European and, to a
lesser extent, North America, Mineral resources played signifi-
cant roles only in Guyana and Jamaica with their bauxite resrves
and in Trinidad and Tobago where petroleum was mined since the
latter half cf the nineteenth century and refined since the early
twentieth century. One cf the simplest solutions to the foreign
reserve problem was to invite investment from outside the region
with a view “ewards industrialization.

One common incentive was the fact that the possibility of
environmental degradation would be completely ignored by the
inviting Governments. The industrial companies of the developed
countried did not hesitate to explore the opportunities given to
them because of the tax reliefs, relatively cheap labour and

Principal Medical Officer f£nvaron. Health), Ministry of Health
and Environment, Fort ot Spain, Teirtidad-Tobago, H. Indies

surrounding region

115

Harinp Affairs, an agency of tho Cowernmont, Is active)/ engaged
in research which to/ result In the development of such standards
to be included In Public Health or Environmental Legislatirn
This research is being done in Elaboration vith the Ministry cf
Health and Envircnfrent and hopefully will b® applicable in other
tropical environnents. The need for EnvirontD^ntal Impact Assess-
ments as part Of the develrpnent prrcesB is well recognieed in
the sub-reqion Several technical officers and professional s
bC-h in the Public end Private eector have b"en trained in the
use of 'his tori Kcst have received Coverntrent Scholarahips or
rellcwehips frpft international Organisations Courses ere new
being pl.inB'’d in eeveraJ cruatrieo r/ the Caribbean so that
trained personnel can pass their shills onto their colleagues
under the guidance of espert consultants However, d^velopm-n*'
continues in the fields of induntry, housing and the establish'
le-nt of utilities without the incorpora' ion of environmental
Impact Asessments in spite of the protests of offie-rs 'rainet. to
perfrrn such aBseasments The siisaing iiiyradienl appears to b"
the lack of interest of the co.itmunity whichis not yet prepared to
• participate in natters pertaining to environmental projection

There is no dispu'e in the Caribbean that any public educa-
tion prrgrarrne imjst include programes in schools at all levels.
However, prcblems are being experienced in having environmental
education Included as a separate eubject In the curricula of
primary and secondary schools. It la claimed that it is Irpcssi-
ble to Include this as another subject because of the already
rvercrowded schedule. As a result, environmental topics are being
Incorporated Into the established subjects, e.g. social studies
and geography. One major drawbac< is that in teacher training,
health education is still not giv®n the prominence that Is neces-
Rsry for le to play a significant role in the classroom. in
fact, In many cases health education is an optional subject for
trainees and most of the time there is no eranjlnation at the end
of this course. Traditional/# health education, including Envi-
ronrfienjal Education In schO/Ols was. and still Is, the task of
members of health teams in the Various districts of the islands.
The education function of these teams is planned and guided by
highly trained Health Educators who attempt to bridge th® gap
between Hinistrles rf H®3lth and iviuca'if.n. w/iatpver euccese
Heal'h Udu~a'ore and ^heir colleagues in th® health teang have
achieved in schools how-ver, was not dene without repeated frus-
tration, In th® not to.o distant past# these (ifficprs were regard-
ed by school staff as intruders who persistently upset tfi® sreoth
running of th®lr schools. At presen*- Ih-ugh, it is most hea-^en-
ing to, note that at least Jn Trinidad and Tobago* *here is close
cooperation between educa'xcn and h®alth officials, local Govern-
ment Tepres®ntative8, meffbers ofthe business ccnTrunity and Dth®r0
in the holding of a "Sclmols Environmental Sanitation" comp®*!-
tirn This competl'lcn ln®lud®s the physical condition cf

schools and their grounas over an extended period, debates,
quizes, posters etc. In many islands Health Educators have suc-
cessfully set up community groups which meet regularly to dis-
cuss their health services, ineludinci environmental health prob-
lems, set their priorities, make representations to relevant
authorities and evaluate their success.

The media play an increasingly important role in Environmen-
tal Education in Caribbean countries. Most of the population
owns radios and a large majority owns television sets. Radio
stations, many of which are owned by Governments, exist in all
territories, but these territories do not all transmit television
programmes Tt is relatively simple for residents of the latter
to take advantage of the facilitis of their neighbours. Modern
technology has added a new dinenaitn to television viewing. It
IS now possible to obtain television pregramnes off the United
States Satellites While some islands reeive and retransmit live
from the United Spates of America to varying extents, more afflu-
ent citizens can purchase the expensive facilities necessary for
private reception. Many domestic radio and television stations
have time allotted at prime time for "Government Prograntnes" .
Time is assigned to various Government agencis who wish to trans-
mit messages to the public. Host of these progranmes, however,
are dull and unattractive and as a result, do not en]Oy a large
listening or viewing audience.

The most glaring problem which ia common to all Caribbean
Islands at the present time is the one of Solid Waste Management.
The affluence of some countries, the proximity to North America
and the need to eater for transient visitors have resulted in the
increased use of non-biodegradable disposables. The absence of
recycling technology has also resulted in excessive volumes of
waste. The complacency of the maiority of the population with
respect tc indiscriminace littering of |»iblic places like parks,
roadsides, beaches etc., has been presenting imiense problems to
officials concerned with the disposal of waste. One Government
in the sub-regiion, however, decided to face the problem of solid
waste disposal with a view toward developing plans for an organi-
sed approach to solid waste management.

In 1979, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded a
contract to a joint venture company of J’oreign and local Enginee-
ring Consultants to study the existing state of solid waste
management in that twin-island state and to make recoimendations
for Its rationalization. This study brought to light the fact
that equipment and techniques which were being used for waste
-wiv- IX 'evu TioXe* XriaX Tit,

national guidelines existed resulting in the Local Government
Authorities working in isolation and very often groping in the
darX because cf the lack of necessary expertise at local level.

From the various alternatives recommended to the Government
in the final report entitled "Solid Haste Master Plan for Trim-

117

dad and *106390", it was doeidod that a Company with limited
liability will be formed with one shareholder, the GovernrnenC. A
Board of Directors was selected from among businessmen of the
Private Sector and Officers 0# the Public Sector with relevant
experience. Funds were allocated to the Company in accordance
with the budget presented by the consultants in their study. The
Trinidad and Tchago Solid Waste Management Company Limited came
into existence in November, 1980. One of the recommendations of
the "Master Plan" was the establishment within the Company, of a
Public Relations Division, with a Public Relations Officer, a
Secretary and two public Relations Assistants. This Division
became functional in April. 1981 with the appointment of a Public
Education Manager. When it was decided l>y the Company that the
most desirable approach to Solid Waste Management was through
Public l^ucatien, it became obvious that the Public Relations
Division, envisaged in the Master Plan was inadequate "o perform
the functions necessary. It was also found that eixsting facili-
ties, both private and public, which were available for txansmis-
aion «f infcnaation to the public were expensive, of varying
quality and hence, not dependable. The solution arrived at was
the establishment of a "Media Division* of the Company with the
capability to produce the audio visual aids, including a mrnthly
newspaper which is widely circulated in Trinjdnrt and Tobago. This
newspaper is named "Charlie", a character developed by the Solid
Waste Management Company Limited (Pig. 2).

Within one year of its existence, the Company made a signi-
ficant impact on Solid Waste disposal, using the mecnod of sani-
tary landfill. While this wtric was being done, however, a number
of meetings and seminars were held with Government officials,
people who generate large quantities of of waste and members of
the public. It was soon found that the general public was willing
to assist in the maintenance of a clean, healthy environment
within their communities but, very often, their efforts were
frustrated by laolc of ecmpetent guidance and by unreliable servi-
ces, The company tried tc fill the void by organising the regis-
tration of "heighbourhcod Action Croiups" (NAC's) in communities,
including schools and places of work. At present there are over
130 such groups throughout Trinidad and Tobago, Among these
groups there is on annual competition. It may be noted that the
1985 competition is geared to make competitors aware Of the need
for a national approach to environitental cleanliness.

Like ocher member countries of the World Health Organieaticn ,
the Caribbean islands are aiming at the goal of "Health for All
by the year 2000", It is becoming increasingly obvicus that the
eehievement of such a goal is dependent on sound environmental
management since this must fom an integral part of Primary
Health Care.

;iCKNCMLeCX:EMENiS

I wish tc acknowledqe «ith tbanks thp Officers of the Staff
of the Caribbean Progra-wie Co-ordinatori PAHO/h’HOi Barbados, for
•■heir kind assistance in discussing with me the educational
approach to environmental problems in the Caribbean. The Officers
of the Carribbean conservation Association were also very helpful
in disclosing the important rrle being played by the Asso-ciation.
Gratituoe is also due to the tjcecuttve Chairman and staff of the
frinidad and Tobago Solid Waste Hanagement Company Limited for
their eagerness to provide infcrmaricn and audio-visual material
for this presentation. Finally, I am grateful to the CcrtEnittee
on Science and rechnolcgy in Deieloping Countries for giving me
the opportunity to highlight some of the problems of environmen-
tal management in the Caribbean and the efforts being made to

PERCEPTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN A HIGHLY
COMPLEX SITUATION: THE ROME CASE STUDY

P. Anonlt H. Bonnes end Giuliani*

The present survey is part of an intearated proaremme of
research on the city of Pome (1981) carried out within the fraire-
work of UNESCO-Hon and Biosphere Project no 11 on Urban Ecology
hpplied to the City of Pome with the help of specialists from
different fields.

It IS related In particular to the studies of the wnrleinn
□roup on "environmental perception (Ponnen and Secchiaroli 1983,
Bonnes 19i4) involving different inhabitant age groups in an
ecological approam for the purpose of aaining insight into the
multiple dimensions linking both individuals and groups to this
complex urban reality.

hlh

The primary aim of the survey involving a sample of young
irhobitshtfl reported herein is to serve as an integrated approach
to the problem of environmental education It has been assumed
that an educstienai pregramee embracing specific environments can
be developed more effectively within a plan pf studies aimed at
extending end integrating knowledge of both the physical md
objective aspects of such environments and the perceptions and
evsluaClona peculiar to the Inhabitants.

The second aim is to develop a tnethed for etudving the
perceptions and knowledge of a given category of inhabitants vis-
a-vis a specific environsJent which could be used both in the
preliminary survey and in a eubaeguent programme to monitor any
changes in perception accompanying educational action,

Ttie third aim lo to use the above tools to design a focussed
educational prograime catering for the pome urban environment,
i.e.. a proqrawne whose contents will be chosen hearing in mind
the specific nature of the enwironcnent and the char^c^rietics cf
the perceptions and knowledge of the subjects of the educational
prograniBe itself.

The results reported herein refer to one of the early stages
of research and specifically to the development and testing of a
plan designed to analyse the subjecte' knowledge of the environ-
ment and, even at this early stage, to detect inter-individual
differences inthe way the environment is perceived and organized.

Jnstituto di fsicologia, C.N.R., and University of Rome, Italy

120

MFTHOD

a oupstinnnairp csn the city ol Fome drawn up and admini-

stered to a sample of about 120 pupils of both sexes aoed about
12 years from different socio-economic backorounds and attendinc
three different Rome state secondary schools The three schools
were selected on the basis of their respective locations i e.
the centre the inner suburbs and the outer suburbs

The responses to the questiormaire , which referred to three
mam urban areas i e the cen“re the residential area and the
outer suburbs were quantitatively analysed usino a multidimen-
sional method desianed to interpret both their form and content

Poth the descriptive icoanltive) and evaluative (affective!
ditnentions were taken into account with reaard to the contents
(Fio 1) The descriptive content was c‘'aracrerized aeeordira •'o
Its mainly perceptive ra'^ure or to the ex*'ent to which it was an
indicator of the above-mentioned environmental factors usinc
s*-oko)E distinction Tie percee*’i'p consent was classi-

fied into *WT3 cateqories town plannina an'^ architecture and ‘•he
meanina content into three cateaories functional environmental
context human context

The evaluative content was defined accordim to whether the
response diven was positive, neutral or neoative

The followinn forma) characteristics were taken in*o account
Complexity as a function of the number of ca^eonnes, and
Clarity as a function of the evidence eoncernino individual

contents in the overall situation

RESULTS

rt lies outside our present scope to Give a systematlr
account of all the results he shall limit ourselves to illustra-
tinq a few comparative data referrino to the answers qiven by the
subjects to open questions elicitina a description of their own
quarter and of the city centre for the mam purpose of evaluatina
whether the same environmental referent implie*? a similar cooni-
tivp elaboration and at the sam» time whether different environ-
mental referents correspond to different connitive elaborations.

One of the preliminary results refers to the influence of
the subjects soclo-detnoqraphie and residential backqround on
their environmental perception In the case of all the constructs
examined there were found to be no siqnificant differences
related to the subject s sex and socio-economic level , while
residential experience of different parts of the city was found
to be an important differential factor

Content Dimensions

The overall results referrino to the eatenories used by the

flo. I.

Mown PLANNINO

rCRCEPTivc j^^B{.„ntcTURc

TOWN PLANNING ARCHITECTURE FUNCTIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONT HUMAN CONT.

125

TOWN PLANNIHG ARCHITECTURE FUNCTIONL ENVIRONMENTAL CONT HUMAN CONT

oescRiprioN optmc ouAnicR ano of the ccktri

City CfNTne SCKOOL MSJCCTllA) n

TOWN PLANNINfl ARCHITCCTURE rUNCTIOHAl ENVIRONMENTAL CONT HUMAN CONT

127

TOWNPLAHNINO ABCHITECTURE FUNCTIOHAU ENVIRONMETAU COHT. HUMAM COHT.

Fig.' 6. content dbontlon. Ootcrlptlon of too qn.rtnr (0) .nd Iho Contro-Outcr jobgrt,,
school subjects (C)

129

Town Planning Archltoctoro Functional Environ. Content Hutnan Content
Fig. Q. Ftost frequently uje<i subcategories In tho description of the Centro

130

population of thp historical esntrs of Roms.

The representations of the ^roup of subjects from the centre
tend to differ also with reoard to the functional sub-eategones
more frequently used (e.q., the shopping functions, both generic
and specific, easy coirrnunications , versus play facilities and
general level of efficiency of the quarter, as indicated by the
other two aroups).

With respect to the quarter, the characteristics displayed
in the representation of the centre seem to be more similar. As
shown in Fio. B, the sub-cateoorses more frequently referred to
in characterizino this area are constant factors in all three
groups of subjects. Even thouah, as we have already seen in Fio.
3, the preferential reference to one or other of the broad thema-
tic groups (e.c. town planning, architecture, etc.) is a variable
apparently depending on the area of residence the contents of the
subcateqories of these references seems to be fairly constant and
thus to reflect a comparatively stable and coherent imaae of the
city's historical centre. This image is based upon the signifi-
cance of the places, buildings and monuments, the bustle of the
shoppinq area, the busy notor traffic is made appealing by its
monuments and the liveliness and colour of the life coinq on
there, but where life is made more difficult by the chaotic
traffic and overerowdinq and by the invasion of factors of human
and environmental degradation.

Comparison of the aggregated data shows that the centre is
described in a more highly polarized fashion, with the accent on
highly characterizing elements in the form of specific places and
buildings. In the ease of the perception of the quarter, greater
importance seeiKS to attach to remarks both positive and negative,
concerning the jwre directly interactive aspects, e.q. the human
relations context availability of park areas and play facilities,
cleanliness and in general anything more directly connected with
actual living conditions.

Among the overall opinions expressed the following are
worth stressing, particularly for the purpose of an environmental
education prograimie the need for parks and green spaces, the
capacity to appreciate historical and artistic values, the sensi-
tivity to all the factors of environmental context more directly
related to inhabitability and the quality of life, and, lastly,
the intrusion into young people's everyday life of problems
associated with deviance, drugs and violence.

Examination of the formal asspects of the cognitive repre-
sentations of the centre and of the quarters, respectively, has
*^vealed the existence of different patterns of category content.

Fig, 10. FORMAL CHHENSION

TOWNPLANNING ARCHITECTURE

133

TOVrk PUHMINc]' MCHlTtCniRE FWCnOHK OiVlRONMDITAL CONt HUH4N CONT

CLARITY or THt CteNJTTVE REMEMTATIOH OF THE CENTRE ACCOROIHO SCHOOL 6
TO THE CATEGORIES AND SOBCATECORIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL FEACTURES SCHOOL C

134

ARCHITACn^RE FUNCTIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONT HUMAN CONT

135

Cpirplfxity

sp<>aViro, as in case of the analysis of response
content, the ciraphic representations display a trend character-
ized by two peaks corresponding to the town planning and/or
architectural aspects, on the one hand, and to the environwental
context, on the other. The complexity of the opinions held or
certain aspects of the city is directly proportional to the
degree of interest aroused by these aspects. Therefore, the more
often a cateoory is used in the descriptiooi the mere often sub-
cateoories of it end associated shades of meanina are specified.

The representations of the quarter aiven by the three oroup®
of subjects frcri the standpoint of complexity are shown in Fia.
10. The three constructs are seen to be quite clearly differenti-
ated (P= .0011, schools A and B with comparatively similar pat-
ternsi and school C a quite different one.

In the representations of the school in the town centre and
of that m the inner suburbs there is a tendency towards stress-
inq both the architectural and the environmental aspects* the
latter are B«re emphasized in the intermediate school and the
former in the central school. The highest absolute deqree of
complexity occurred in the use of the town plenninc csteqories in
the description of the outer suburbs school , in which 80% of the
sub-eategories were used. Purthennore this eerrespends to a lower
decree of eonplexity In the use of the other eateoories than in
the other schools.

The description of the centre (Fic. 10) reveals an average
complexity for all three schools that is lower than that of the
quarter. The greater complexity of the quarter is thus probably
related to the greater degree of familiarity* i.e. of knowledge
and interactions* allowed by such an environment.

Comparison of the three oroups* knowledge revealed somewhat
different trends also in this case [P« .01), although to a lesser
extent than for the quarter. The curves Furthest apart aeem to be
those ofschools B and c, while school A displays a tendency to
share aspects first with one and then with the other. Tn particu-
lar, It approaches school c in that it reaches peak complexity
with refereiee to the sub-cateqories used in the description in
architectural terms, and the lowest point withreference to the
functional categories, while it resembles school B as far the
town planning cateqories, those ol environmental context and of
the human context are concerned.

Clarity

The dimension of clarity (i.e. the predominance, in terms of
frequency, of one sub-cateqory versus another) tends towards the
opposite direction tocomplexity and is related to the high degree
of attraction exerted by certain sub-categorical contents with
reference to specific urban contexts. As a rule clarity is inier-

136

ecly proportional to familiarity, l.o. to tha dograa of knowlactgo
of and interaction with an environment. It thus appears to be
related to the greater atereotype IntSe direetien of both simpli-
fication and symbolization resulting from smaller knowledge.

Comparison of the data referring to clarity shows that on
the average this notion reachee a teuch higher level in the centre
than in the outer suburbs.

Furthermore! Fig. 11, which seta out the descriptions of the
centre also shows how a considerable differentiation of the
levels of clarity referring to the large groups of categories (P-
.001) corresponds to a unanimous Identification of the more sig-
nificant eub-categoncal contents (e.g. specific places, s, ecific
buildings (monumenta for school A), shops, traffic, and number of
people) .

As far as the Quarter is concerned (Fig. 121, the trends in
the clarity levels of the three descriptions do not appear to
differ appreciably (P= n.s.) while the specific sub-categorical
contents seem to identify two different notions of the quarter,
on the one hand, that of residents of the historical centre, and
on the other that of residents in the two modern areas.

The pupils from school A describe their own quarter situated
in the historical centre of the city. In terms of location. Ms-
tory, existence of shops and consnunieation facilities, elitist/
popular nature and observation concerning the atxosphere, nostly
described using the terms of 'lively* and 'animated'.

The descriptions of the pupils in the other two schools, one
situated in an intermediate area with large available green
spaces, and the ether in the outer suburbs, share the same
themes* parks, degree of aesthetic appreciation, play facilities,
degree of cleanliness or dirtiness of the quarter.

Finally, all three groups of subjects share a high degree of
clarity with reference to the human context, unanimously referred
to the density of population.

CONCLUSION

The overall results obtained so far indicate that the method
d^velopvd and usvd to study urban environmental cognition is
satisfactory and capable of revealing differencea in individual
perceptions, knowledge pertaining to the urban environment and
parts thereof.

This tool could thus be used to study any modifications in
these perceptions 'diile specific environmental, education program-
mes were being run.

Secondly, the fact that the "basic" environmental knowledge
regarding complexity, clarity and contents of the young people
participating in the survey was largely dependent on the type of
specific residential experience they had had, seems to point to
the advisability of taking as much account as possible of the

137

specific nature of the context closest to the eubjesta In oraer
to bring them towards a truly ecological understanding of the
urban ervironment based on their direct envlronfflental Xnowledge
and needs.

REFEBEHCES

UNESCO KAB-ttalia no, II. Urban ecology applied to the city

of Rome. Progress Report no. 2.

Bonnesi H. and G.F. Gecchlaroli. 1943. CDtrplecsita dell'embiente
urbano e rappresentaelonl cognitive degli abltantl: verso
un'enaliai tnjltidimenaienale delle eognizionl dell'ambiente
urbano romano. Rapporto Tecnlco 315. Instituto di Fslcolo-
gla CKR.

Gomes, H. 1984. An ecological approach to the urban environment
perception: Rome case study HAB II. Paper at Environmental
Perception Regional Seminar for totin America and the Carib-
bean. UNCSCO-ROS'ILAC, Montevideo (tx:).

StokloB, D. 1901. Group x Place Tranasctlons: Some neglected
issues In psychological research on settings, In E. Ksgnus-
son (Sd) Toward a Psychology of Situations: An Interactional
Perspective, tavrence Erlbaum Associates . Hillsdale, Hew
Jersey.

MAKING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RELEVANT IN INDIA

A.B. Saxena

IHE QUESTION OF RELEVANCE

An examiration of erwironnental education (EE) programmes
(Lucas 1Q80 Unesco 19BI saxena 19B4) shows that they empha9i7ed
'process' education and also the education of ‘attitudes' and
"values’. The developnent of a process is mainly confined to
skills or problem solving %Ailch is value free and hence rx>n'
controversial. Morevover, the skills are content independent in
the seree that they provide the necessary tool %<hich can be
applied to solve any prohlm may it be in developing or developed
country The same is not the case with attitudes and values They
have roots in soeiali economic and cultural context of the envi-
roiTncnt . Hence treating them in the claasroom is difficult.
Unless issues are aralysed dispassionately in terms of cause
effect and implicatlans, it Is difficult to reach the root cause
of the problem. Stapp (1976) has provided a good working proce-
dure to do this and it is illustrated in Pig 1. The analysis
starts with a mator etr/lroimental issue and studies it In terms
of maior reasons for erviromentsl abuses. These can be due to
individual behaviour patterns such as Increasing litter or
govermental behaviour patterns such as unstrategic ruelear waste
disposal. The problem can further be studied in terms of actions
to reduce behaviour responsible for the problem Firally it boils
down to the objective of enviromental eduction in terms of
attitudes, value formation and skill development- However, the
causes of eivironnental crisis in different countries may be due
to poverty* increasing population etc , udiereas in the developed
countries the crisis msy be due to affluence. Because of differ-,
ent socio economic backgrouiH the crises which countries face are
different. For example, in some countries the population Is inc-
reasing fast This IS more so in developing countries as rate of
increasing population and affluence are inversely lirked- In some
developed countries such as Gemnny the population is decreasing
and may cause alarm However, there are also some envirormental
problems comnon to both developed and developing countries. Some
such problems are decreasing forest area, air pollution, water
pollution etc. , thoujdi it is recognised that the cause of such
problems may be rooted in the context of the country itself.

This brings us to tlie cpieatlon of relevant enviromentaL
education. Unfortunately, due to many reasons such as "fixed

Fsffional College of Education, Bbopai, Xndi.

159

curricul\ri, standard exawimtion wer a vast rejtlon children
oCter study ensdronnent such as 'turdra', 'tropical forests",
'deserts’, »dilch nay be very remote to them vdth hardly ary like-
lihood of encountering these environnenta . On the contrary the
environtienta which are nearer often go unnoticed and unstudied.
Wo doubt atudying the remote enrlrornient r«y be useful to acme
extent but priorities seem to be lopsided.

Children should do field work in the nearby envlrotmenty
collect data about the problems related to their eoclo economic
environnent. In this context the eivironrwnt becomes the labora-
tory with the aim that children can observe the ongoing forces
and draw their own conelusiom. Perhaps it may tot be advantage*
ous for the children to study maty envirotwent superficially
rather than to study few. may be oik, eivirotment thoroughly.
This will make them to urrieratand the uttierlyirg currents In the
environnent and aee relationships between different components.
OiKe equipped with methodology and skills for doing so they will
find it easy to study ant amlyze other environneiTt as and when
reed be.

This would imply that (Vivian 19731

• Children will frequently leave the class rown to study various

ervlroments first harel.

• The school arri the cemrunity will have to ecrmuracate with each

other about erviremental problems and decisions.

• The school and eoBmuidty will interact for planning of the

improvement of erviroimental quality.

• They will execute some of those plans together.

Stepp (197tt) has provided acme guiding principles to help
achieve these. The principles are:

"Environmental education should;

Consider the eP/lroTn»ent in its totality - natural and built
ecological political economic technological social legisla-
tive cultural and aesthetic.

Be a continuous life long process, it should begin at the
pre-school level and continue through all formal atxl nonfornul
stages.

Be irrterdisciplliary In Its approach, drawing on the speci-
fic content of each discipline In making possible a holistic and
balanced perspective.

Emphaaiaed active participation in preventing envirotmental
problems and working towards their solution

Enable learnera to play a role m planning their learning
experiences and provide an opportunity for making decisiom and
accepting their consequences.

Focua on current and potential envirormental aituatiore.

Explicitly consider eivirotnental aspects in plarm for deve-
lopment and growth.

140

Promote inter-relationship of people and ervirorment.

Examine ervironnental issues from local natioral and Inter-
mtional points of view so that learners receive insight into
envirormental conditions in other geographical areas.

Focus on the learner a own connunity and relating topics
being discussed to state regional national and intermtional
issues anl perspectives.

Relating emdrotmental sensitivity knowledge problem solv-
ing and vlaues at very grade level but with apecial emphasis on
erviromental sensitivity in early years.

Emphasise the conplexity of envirormental problems and the
need to develop critical thinking and problem aolving skills.

Utilize diverse learning ervirorment atxJ a broad array of
educatioml approaches to teaching/learmr^g abcut and from the
ervirormerTt with due stress on practical activities and first
harxl experiences".

THE RELEVANCE INTO FRACTICE

The considerations discussed so far show that only interdis-
ciplinary tasks are suitable for ES program However it ia diffi-
cult to see what areas are to be covered and what methods may be
used Perhaps the choice of tne topic la very inportant and will
depervi on social, ecornmic ard cultural backgroun) which are
important in discussing the issue. A topic like "p^njlatlon* may
be more relevant in developing couirtry where population is incr-
easing at an alarming rate rather than in a country where popula-
tion increase is mt In the background of the children. There-
fore , the choice of the topic is inportant and rmat be made with
care

The treattinent of the topic and the literature consultation
forms another inportant aspect of relevance One has to see what
are the different relevant aspects of the topic and how far these
are being covered Mar^ times irrelevant Juxtapositions may be
confusing and/or misleading. The observation that '*Ihere are many
educational films which adopt a racist and apocalyptic attitude,
lirfdng the so called population explosion' of the Third World
with ervirormental pollution so that the spectator is lead to
believe that an erviromental explosion Is occurririg as a result
of demographic pollution by coloured people, this belief leads
to acceptance of wars in the Third World natural ‘accident* such
as famine and disease or the withholding of medical assistance
as the solution of the problems" (Caiappo 1978) shows how inpor-
tant it is to see the problem In the n^t context and also that
the choice of the literature is very important for films are no
exception to this kind of remark. Other -educational material can
also be fmnd with similar bearltig.

The philosophy of such a relevant EE la depicted in Fig. 2

142

Usino environment as resource
for (Jevelonlno enauiry
sV,iils

Findlno out about a

particular environment
and about environmental
topics and Issues

Building educational activities
aimed at developing positive values
based on informed consideration,
care and concern

fig. 2. liie relevant environmental education

143

For the purpose of plaiiiiins the study the foUowinj; questions may
have importatit bearinR;

- Ishat are ifrportant obiects or everts relevant for the study'*

- How the obiects/events are related to the ervironnent and/or to
the obiectivea of the studv'*

- l<hat kind of records can be made and data collected'*

. How the records are to be analysed to reach acme kind of objec-
tive interpretations

- Uhat are the irpUcatlom of the result in terms of soclal-
irriividual corporate and eoverinental behaviour'*

- How the desired behaviour can be achieved**

Oespite the er^rfjasia on interdisciplinary approach in lite-
rature the fact la that moat of the school proFramnea still tend
to accentuate the itriividual subiccla Very few progrentnes do
really imeprate the erviroiment in the curricula^ pay attention
to experimentation and the need of the children all necessary
insradienta for relevant EE pro/tranrae For this to achieve one
would need to adapt the content aid methods of education more
closely aiil also the ewre flexibility for the natural, cultural
and hunan eivirotisont in which education is provided, In the
developiti; countries the effect of the irherited colemal system
aS still large anl iseds modification according to the local
requirements (Unesco 19^2).

Miat is needed is the appropriate mixture of awareneaa
procrarmie, exposure to real life* conservation and developnental
prograimes. Pig. 3 provides a rough ides of relative percentaee
of these different kinds of E£ prograwtes that are needed at
primary, lower secordary, tertiary and adult education levels. At
priimry level etviraimentaL awareness is most important whereas
development is of little use. As one goes to higher stages of
education, eivirormertal awareness becomes less important and
other conponents gain jnereasing importance- Finally at tertiary
and adult education level, development is most important aspect
of EE. Obvlcxisly this distribution cannot be final and will also
depend on the philosophy of progratmyva and other considerations.

Another way of looking at different aspects of EE, i.e.
etviroimental aciuitivity, factual kmowledge, problem solvir^
skilly and planet earth philosophy with varyjpg emphasis, can be
shown as in Fig. t|. It shows that factual knowledge which is
closely related to enviroimcntal awarenesa is very important in
the early years of education But in this depiction planet earth
pliilosophy ard problem solving skills are also important in early
years of education Their importance decrease with increase in
years of education. The difficulty with this kind of emphasis is
that It stresses too irwch on problem solving skills and it la
doubtful tliat this is practicable* especially when it is rare to
see real problem solving and scientific methods beir^ Used m the
classrocm. Moat of the time diildren are able to ’know* the

145

rlpht** answer aiil try to get It. The exercise of aolving a
problem looks rrwre Like a way of reachirj predetermined oiHwer.

NEW DI>!F.NS10NS OF MI^VANCE
Ewiroiinental Education for Ibniicapped Children

Lines and Dolwell (1971) mijteeat the use of ervlroimental
studies for children with learninR difficulties, CoiBedIng the
fact that such diildren cannot do such on elaborate study os the
nonral children, nor over a very long duration of tliwi they
argue that The advantages of this approach are that It is suffi-
ciently flexible for children of different ability levels ani
differing degrees of ftiyalcal handicap to contribute individually
to class or group work, and group work erables them to develop
their language and other basic skills. It la also argued that for
the development of reading skills, it is necessary to develop
akllls of oral comuiiicallon and adequate vocabulary. These can
be itTproved upon to a considerable extent by enccjuraglng the
children to talk about their local eni,iroiiT>ent aitl experience
with it.

Out of School education

Out of School education eemprises of all the activities
Uiderteken outside the foriMl curriculun and teadilng period.
These activities may eonprise of Informal activities such as
camps, trails etc. The Important point about these activities la
that these ore mostly pursued by the children becuase of their
interest in ttiese without much help from teacher of fonreil
school system. It Is different fron Informal education and non-
fonnal education both of which take place as a result of factors
exterral to school system. Atputnnnathan (t9B2) describes the
salient features of residential camps as followlrg:

1. The participants are there of their own free choice and
scmetlmes when there is greater demani additioral camps are held
for a selection is made of the roost Interested participants. This
is done by means of questioiraire and recomTterriations .

2. The progrannes are roalnly for life- and development-
oriented protects Sameeimea one component nwy overlap the other.
It la also possible that a scries of comps has to be held to
focus attention on a project.

Such out of School aetSvltles can be very useful for EE
because children are self motivated and these do not overburden
the school curriculun. Many a time the activities to be taken up
are also decided by the children and <AJecCivea are set.

COMMUNICATION STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

K.V. Sarabhai*

It IS only over the last decade that an awareness of envl-
romental issues has been created anonf^st a cross section of the
population It is unfortunate that such awareness has come as a
result of a {trowins en/iromental crisis. In the West the crisis
manifests itself in the form of pollution and other effects of
iniustriallzation In developing countries where industrializa-
tion is yet in its infancy, there la a far wider range of envi-
ronnental issues Wood Is still the pnitary source of energy in
many of these economies Conflicts between man and animal and man
and foresta are much sharper and much more direct. Prograirmes for
preserving genetic diversity are not an abstract academic issue
here, but a question of making hard developmental choices betwen
projects to build dams and plans to preserve forests. While in
the West the focus of the ervlrormental movement is on control,
in the developing countries it is as much on planning. To this
extent, the thrust of envirormental education needs to be on
bringing to surface lirkagea between enviromient and development
and to find ways of integrating environnental considerations In
development planning*

Envirormental groups in the developed countries have had to
take an arTtl*establishmerrt , snti'goverrment stand for they have
to argue against existing lobbies and powerful interest groups.
Faced with the terrible erviroimental degradation thathas already
taken place through rapid iiuustrialization and urban growth the
envirormental movement in the West is now trying to stop further
destruction and improve the situation, in the developing countries
where there is still so much to preserve, there is scope to plan
development strategies in a way that they can best use natural
resources rather than plunder them and leave nothing for the
generations to come

Awarersss of these issues is required at several levels^ at
primary arxl even kindergarten levels, in high schools, colleges
and universities and mainly among the general coimiunity. Environ-
mental education needs to reach specific target groups in both
urban and rural areas* The issues cover a wide variety of topics
from cleaning rivers to preserving forests to having open spaces
for the urban, areas to uain)^ lnijcwat.T.ve tachmlJigles. that ace
enviroimentally sound. The target groups for such cannunication
are equally varied. Envlronnent is rot a sector of our society or
a separate compartment of our lives but concerts just about all

Centre for Environmental Bducation, Nehru Foaniation for
Development, AhmedabaH, India

149

aspects of our ensterce E77iarorr«rtal eAi&atxon, therefo'-e^
cat»t b# loosed upon xn jsolation but has to ir'ej^te m.th
retvdrtcs xn the tourtrj vhx<h *re already an the field of disae
taretion of kiwledjre of creatirp public avaremss or of urrier-
talanr de^elop-ert proiecta But in O'tJer to effectxaeli arter
act vith this network and to ennire that it responds to the
challerpes of ervarotr^p* education, a well planned arrS creative
straten needs to be «do5t“d There is a need for jeensrsCiry fw
ervirorree' education preg- a ties and psstenal atiJ fc*- traiiurr
persorrel to use the^e lVi*re is a need to create desremtration
areas and show exar^les of proir^atnea which can be trerri •ettinc
to the rest of the courtrN.

In India, as in fact in ran, courtnes , the field of ervi
romert arri albrR with it emreiner* education tenia to be
looked at as a separate discipline Ervaroirient eTk;catioD efforts
haw thus tried to establish new indepenlep* eomiin cations dir
ectly %ath the end beneficiaries or tarpet proups rather than
ir*e(3-atinp their efforts with ocaatiny ccminicataon networks
Such efforts thmudi opfinzinr •ocietsea, clubs, lectures, fila
^ows anl p^ttirt posters and other p^lict^ ratenal is very
useful twt can cnl> have a liruted lepact on the nsinstreaa of
society An atte-pt has to be rede to ir*eprale en.'iromental
eduction vith the lar/nr educatioml and dcN»lep~ert prepratnes
of the eeuDtry

Realaunp the tresvndous task and the need to deielop inno-
vative proLi'a. i es and eetenals in the field of eikiromertal
edusatten the Oepartsect of Erviretnert Geaerrrert of India haa
set up the Cer»re for Ervironwert Cdusatien at A-h-edabad Eellm-
a>tr a tneditlon of tsnldinr aciertific institutions around a y oo i d
prcs^ that wxuld act as a mcleus, the Oepsrtnent of Ermromert
haa established this Centre usirs the people and prop- a - i ies of
VIKSAT and other iretitutiens of Sthro rcunlstion for Developrcr*
as its core, I irould like to use exorples of sane prorrsnrea of
this Centre to describe a ctmimcation strate^ that is built
scMnd institutional collaboration m the field of ervirotrert
education Jr each case we describe the Urkares with relevant
networks that ore retjuired for the success of the p opr a - t - t *

A >ery c^naous lirfape xn this case is with the schools,
coUegres and universities There are m this eeurtry boards of
T*i»ary and secondary education at the Slate level which set the
curriculua There are teK^boak boards which owersee and prepare
all the book catenal which goes ir*o the spools There are a
nrrtser of private afreieies »*ich prepare other edueatioml taite-
nal in the fona of charts books groides anl to a lesser ecterr
audio visual catenal Aw effective chat^ or intervertion in
the way ervxroment is being taught in aehools would require a
close lirkage between allthe<e iratitutions and groups Effective
lirkages canrot be legislated but wed to be broujiit about in a
F«r»msive way so that they are ir*Brtalised by the various

1S0

groups concerned. The question therefore, of improving environ*
mental education in our formal Institutions Is not merely one of
preparing good educational material, but that of working closely
with this system, of improving and changing various curlcula, of
re writing textbooks, of training teachers and of making avail-
able material integrated into well devised progratmtes. If this is
not done Innovative work will remain available to few schools or
colleges or renein as demonstration plecea with little effect on
the main currents of education in our society. To reach school
children, therefore, the first target group of an envlrotment
education prograrrme must be the school teachers teacher trainers,
and the eduatlotal authorities Perhaps the best strategy for
comincing such a system which has its twn inertia and is there-
fore difficult to change as a wnole is to set up demonstration
prograirtnes Our Centre is trying to identify about a 1000
schools across the country that can be both the demonstration
centres and the testing grounds for the educational material we
will bring out. From July this year, regular week-lopg training
prograrrmes aimed at resource teachers or teacher trainers, espe-
cially at the primary school level are being planned

Over the last decade the formation of Nature Clubs has nude
a very good beginning In Iniia Through the efforts of the World
Wildlife Fund India aid other organisations school children are
regularly taken to cemps end are eneouraged to conduct environ-
mental activities in their scJiools toy forming small clubs. The
members of such clubs are not the average students, but are those
who have got especially motivated or have had the good fortune of
being more exposed to ervironnental issues This network provides
a good opportunity of reaching motivated students who, in turn,
can be catalytic in motivatins several of their school friends.

Visitors to special facilities also provide a good opportu-
mty to reach a motivated group Visitors to zoos, botanical
gardens, wildlife sanctuaries, momnents , and areas of natural
interest represent a very select group of the population which if
reached at the ri^t time with the right type of information
would be willing to listen to and understand environnental
messages

Interpretation of these experiences through well developed
interpretive progranwes is another focus of the Centre's aclvl-
ties. To run an effecive interpretive programne. one needs to
have good interpretive material which may include exhibits, out-
door or wayside e^diibits, printed material, films, signage, etc.,
but cannot be dona without well trained educational officers.
This, otKe again, requires close working together between the
Centre for Environnent Education and the park authorities progra-
mne and run it. Here too, in order to reach the final target
group, VIZ., the visitors to these facilities, one has to first
have a programme aimed at raising the awareness of the authori-
ties and the park staff of both the need and the method of

151

interpretation.

Besides prograirmes for school*, or interpretive progratnnes,
the Centre for Ervlroiment Education Is involved in prograirmes
aimed at specific target groups in rural and urban areas Unlike
educational prograirmes aimed at children which have long range
benefits and whoae benefits are les* tangible to quantify prog-
rairrnes aimed at specific groups have very direct impact and can
be measured In terms of their effectiveness anl developnental
benefits. It is well known that the problem of fuelwood Is reach-
ing alarming proportions in this country Progranmes have been
launched aimed at both the production aril comurption of wood. An
effort is being made to afforest vast tracts of wastelands in
this country. Ihe goverrment has launched schemes that seek the
participation of the village poor in this programse. Ihe techno-
logy is known the funding requlrentents have also been ascertained
and the resource of lani available. To implement this prograime
a massive educational campaign is now needed. This is an area
where emirotmental education is an essential itput into a deve-
lopment scheme. To mobilise the nirai poor once again we need to
thlrk in terms of network. There are barks and funding sgenetes,
vhose aupport will need to be enlisted in order to make this
scheme effective . There are various agencies of govermeiTt that
will have to process forms give the resources to the rij^t
people and develop attitudes which make cooperation with people
possible. Here again, the target group for the environmental
education porogramre is not merely the end beneficiary, but the
network itself In tenre of the workers of the voluntary agencies,
the governnent extension officers and various ether tnstitulons
that are required before such a progranme can become effeoitve.

The task then Is to create and run programnes in environnent
education not merely for ttie final target groups, but also for
the network in between whether they be schools, voluntary agen-
cies, governnent departments, business orgamaations or park
authorities. This strategy of enviroiment education which is a
two level eoTRUtdeation strategy using the country's existing
networks to dlssendmte and run programnea la essential if envi-
ronnent education is to succeed in Its objectives.

The Centre for Etvironaent Education is certainly dealing
with dJxert eamjtacatiffn usitig /arwsp«^«-.s, radi,?
and oven folk media, Ikit in this paper, I have stressed the need
to deal with the existing Institutional framework and become a
part of the network of comnurdcation which already exists in this
country.

INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN TEACHING,
RESEARCH AND EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES

Deep Punia, r.k. Punia and M.L. Sharna*

BACKCnOUl^

Beginning with the Stockholm Confererce (1972), there have
been several Inter-goverrmentaX conferences on different environ-
mental issues* Itie Tibillsi Conference (1977) specifically aimed
at Environnerrtal Education and the World Conservation Strategy
docunent released in 19 &O engihaslzed the himan behaviour in con-
serving his envirorment. Since then several conferences, seminars
and workshops have been organised at interrational and national
level. The long term task of envlronnental education has been to
foster or reinforce attitudes and behsvic«r ccmpatible with the
natural world on which human beings depend for survival and well
being. Intellectual exercises have recognised legislators and
administrators and professionals besides the school children and
students as the main targets for their progranmes.

Goals of Envirornietrtal Education

Ihou^ there is no cotrmon agreeiwnt on the definition of the
concept of environmental education, yet the general consensus on
its goals are (UNESCO 1977 and UNESCO 1980) :

- to foster clear awareness of, and concern about social, econo>
mic, political ani ecological interdependence in urban and rural
areas ;

- to provide every person with opportundtles to acquire the know-
ledge (values attitudes cernnitment) and akilla needed to protect
and improve the envirorment;

- to create new patterrs of beiiaviour of individuals, groups end
society as a whole towards the environnent.

CONIENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

According to climatic and geographic conditions, there is
need to stress differeirt centers for concentration (Robinson
1983 ) but the two most important areas to be attended are the
concepts and causes of pollution of different types, and manage-
|ment of natural resources.

* Dept of Sociology, Haryana Agricultural Vniv,, Hissar, India

153

ROLE OP THS UNlVBRSirrES

“Ibe Irtermtioml Vorkahop on Eiwirorrontal Education in
Belgrade 11975) m Kereral. anl the Intergovemriental Conference
an Thilisi (1977) in specific, reccmended the role of Universi-
ties in a^ievine objectives of ervironnental education. These
are

1 To re%aeM present potential of the Universities for conducting
research specifically fundmental research, concermng eiviron-
nertal education.

2. Interdisciplinary treatment of the basic probleca of interre-
lationships between people and their crvironr—nt is necessary for
stxxlents in all fields

3 To develop different teaching aids and t«t books on the theo-
retical bases of ervircmental protection for all special fields
to be written by leading scientists as soon as possible.

(i. To develop close cooperation between different departments,
faculties « etc. < with specific objective of training experts in
ewiroionental education.

5 Close cooperation between different uraversity departments and
faculties naght assure different foma in lire with the atrueture
of the umversity education in eaA country, but should conbine
contribution frcro physics chenastry. biolojcy ecology, geography,
soeio-eeenanie studies, ethic, education sciences ani aesthetic
education, etc.

Specific Objective of the Paper

Umversities in eountnes like India have the added respojv
aibility of ta)ung into account the wide disparities ihich obtain
with regard to the rural-urban orientation, low literacy level,
the Iw pace of develop^nent, a wioe variety of soclo-econcndc,
religious cultiirnl arri erwirormental coniitiem in designiiig and
developing local specific prograxnes, contents, aatenal ard
activities. Agneultmul Uravesjties own special resporsibility
of propogBting the message of envxrojToental education in achiev-
ing the goals as Kothan (1956) Coocisslon recomenied establlsh-
mert of at least one agncultural umversity in eadi state for
edueatiorel reforms and development of rural areas of the concer-
ned state Almost all Agneulturel Umveraities in India have
three trajor objectives*

a. Ic^rting education in different fields, particularly agricul-
ture, veterirary anl ammal sciences, agricultural engineerii^.
home science and other allied sciences - TEACHIMS

b. Furthering the advancement of learniiig and prosecution of
research, particularly in agricultural and allied sciences -
RESEW?C«

e. Trarafempg the knowledge generated of such scierees to the
rural people or users - E3CIEKSICN

154

Here, an attempt ia made to Integrate the contents of envi«
rorniental education in activities of three major objectives of
these agricultural universities to achieve the goals of environ-
mental education. Haryana Agricultural University at Hlssr has
been taken as a case.

INTEGRATION OP EE IN TEACHING HIOGRAM^ES
Undergraduate Programme

A perusal of different courses offered for undergraduate
progratmies in agricultural university shows thatj in general,
about y} to 409t of the total class roan Instructions are devoted
to the humanities and basic and applied sciences; about 40-^0^ to
the core subjects l.e., agricultural aubjects or ammal science
subjects, etc., and about lO to allied progranmes (for exam-
ple an agriculture student given instruction in agricultural
engineering, amral science, etc.). The students in the B.V.A.Sc.
progranrne attend only a few courses in the basic sciences as they
have necessary training in basic sciences in the Pre-medical/
Intermediate classes

A further perusal of the graduate courses reveals that none
of the environmental title, i.e. etsidronnental science, ervlroT>-
mental engineering, envlronnental design, envlromentsl ccmrunl-'
eatioom, enviromentsl education anl erviromental etudies. is
attended from the point of view ervirotmental planning and con*
servatlon. Thus the existing status is very poor. At undergradu-
ate level, there is no need of edding courses In Environmental
Education. In B.Sc. (Horn.) agriculture, the elements of environ-
mental education may be introduced in courses on Botany. Zoology,
A gro nomy, Soil Seiensea, Entomology and Plant Pathology, Econo-
mies, Sociology and Forestry.

In the firel year, tike other electives option should be
given to EnvlronnetTtal Planning and Conservation.

A separate department of Envirorniental Planning and Conser-
vation should be established in all agricultural univeraities
with a specialist menber from the collaborating departments.

Postgradmte Progrsnme

The postgraduate curriculum Is directed towards greater
specialisation. At M.Sc. level out of 50 credits of course work
required to graduate (one credit is equivalent to one lecture a
week for 3 months), half of it belongs to the field of speciali-
zation and the rest ia related to the eupporting major fields. At
the doctorate level, the total course requirement Is 36 credits,
i.e,, about 8 to 10 courses, distributed between the subject of
specialization ani allied fields.

At postgraduate level, each University should have a post-

155

graduate degree or diploma eourae covering different courses
necessary for it, as is done ty some other Inotltutions.

At postgraduate level there nust be a conpoaite course
covering essential elements of eovirormental conservation which
should be a conpulaoiy course^ at least for those postgraduates
who deal directly with ervirormental aspects i.e., Entomology and
Plant Pathplogy, Soil Sciences, Agronory, Zoology^ Climatology,
Eotany, etc. This woxild create the awareness and provide basic
knowledge of the subject.

Some of the practical pre-re<|ui8ites for etvironnertal edu-
cation progrenme to be kept In nind are:

a. The course content suits the present aystem of imtruction and
syllabi i e. .trimester system and core subjects,
b Course load does not increase in the present syllabi,
c* Opportunltlea are given to participate in practial prograimes
d A trained menher ataff be desigmted to have responsiblity for
planning and coordination.

e. Opportunity la given for taking experiences out of school.

INTEGRATION Of E E IN RESEARCH ffiOSIAMMES

Research in agricultural universities ±« primarily applied.
Various agencies like ICAR, U Q.C. , C S.I R., D.O.E. and
D S T. finance researches. These rover a wide spectrun, ircludingr
studies on pollutants in water and wastewater, envlretment and
waste disposal' analysis of sir pollutants, deaertlfieatien, and
biological productivity. The areas in need of priority
are* soil erd water tnamgement, residual impact of chemicals on
soil, air and production, farm forestry, blcmsss and energy,
population and poverty, ecosystems dynamics and geography of epi-
demic diseases

Agricult\iral Universities generally examine major issues
from regional points of view because each state has its own
Agricultural Uevierslty. Researches of regloml importance can be
taken up by theae imtitutons through sponsored projects and
atudents researches.

Scene of the mafor problems of enviromental cofservatlon in
Haryata region are i) orviard march of Rajasthan desert, ii)
rising water table; iiil increesit^ problem of soil salinity ani
alkalinify,' iv) Inereasii^ industrial pollution^vj poor awarexmss
of these problems among rural as well os urban people. Several
projects at Haryana Agricultural University are in progress but
not from this desired point of view. A sinple bias towards this
problem can give an insl^^t Into the processes of environmental
conservation.

INIEGRATION OF EE IN EXTENSION PROGRAVWES

An unique feature of the agricultural uttLversitiea is their

156

evteiwioii functions i ii respe^tiv? states Ihis fiinctiou is prima-
rjlv e<iucitiotnl in tviture aixl incliKtes ifrpartiiw trainine to
extension nersonnel A Director of Fxtensiori Education Is provi-
ded lor rteietopinc proerammes for assisiipc fanners and house-
wives III TPplvJivt results of scientific itvestijrations to the
solution of their prohlems.

laktie into account the exteiibioii education obiective aril
respons j til 1 1 1\ of the Uiiiveraitv stated above, the clientale to
be seixed l\ the univeisitv within the territory of ilaraaivt State
aie farmers^ rural wcmen rural \outh, rural ist 1 1 tut iotts^ other
mini people, neri hiisine«s complex, pei sonnel ol Goverimett
ilepn tmei ts «it»l ottier Teeis:ies ai»l i Iri in sirators, leeislotors,
aid social leiders.

Dns nirectorite comprises of AfKiaorv, frainiiie and Jifor-
mtioli wil jrs

Adxiscirv wile Ins its team of stste-level specialists in 12
siibiect mntteis at dissir Campus, aid district level specialists
at tile hesdau liters ot 11 of the 12 districts of Msrvaim in 10
auhiect siatteis Iheir sctivities «<i down to the village level
ihcv me the Imveis'tv « field workm s i epreeeiiti nc the renvsiiv-
Mtt two vin>cs ol the Ihrectorate as well as their respective suh-
loet ^stte^ lepsitreits ami eolJeeee of llte Uinversitv Ihis "et-
un St the fhst-ict level has been siwn at nistitutionsl font' a«1
IS knowi as 'Kn«hi fvan Keidra * (KCK* or Farm Advtsorv Service
Ceiitie* , 1hei» activities aid accomplisiiireuts are manv.

Advisors wiiiB i«tv educate the rural oeople thout causes of
en\i rolwental deteriora loi aid ws\s aul men’s to check it,
alternative sources of fire wool aid dine cake, aitl helo develop
necesssarv attitules for enviroiinental ciotection aid noceasarv
skills to solve the problems, tins wtie should also oreanire
ictivities mvolviie liffereit sectitn of society through eiwi-
roirrenttl associatioio ol «todeits tamers \outh consumers aid
other ccmnimtv jtroups

Iraimne wine is locsted in the Iliiectorate of Fxtemion
l-Hucation at Hisar Ciipus >t is inmed Iistitute of Aericul tiiral
Icchiwloev, rrainmc ind Ftuc it loii and his a nucleus of about a
dci^eii teachers dnwii from differert colJeees of the University
from rvnor disciplines amenable to extension education. They
shire their respective subiect matter content of various train-
11 es aid also liaise with their respective departments for arraii-
(Tine additional resource persoiaiel as aid when nee led. Trairanjr
courses are arranjred aid tailored in accord with the needs aid
demaids of various cateeories of clientele Ihese are lon-dejrree/
tvciT-seip, ciTirt Titry 'oe wi aw aspect at tanrati?, eP-c 'Tneir
duration raiifres from one day to 10 months

Jraiuine wme in its proeranmes may emphasise basic traits
me in hunan animal aid plant ecoloev ard interdepeidence field
experiences in the area of etwiroimeutal scieixses, knowletljce of
ewirormeiital issues aid problems of resource manajrement , compe-

tenci05 crvirotrrent^i problem ide«ni icotipn, i Jivest i eitioii
evaluation anl citizeiehic action, rpnortui itie^ to fievelop vihie
clarification, skills at»l kimwlertee of the tolei of Inman value**
in civiroiinental isauea

Jiifonnatjon winir nvi> rteveJop diart^ pa‘^ter3_, films sJiries
etc on rtifterent aspects of topic aiwl succe-*! snitible rreiia for
flissermnation of rressace to dirfereit t ii ee* eroiins.

fhrourh their publications the oi eis i roiinei tal O'tw-

canon can be rlissemi int e<l without inciirrine al^ mlditoivil cost
on the part of client or the oi Kam vat loti. ‘^tn'Dle-*! wi\ i« to
treat ant present the materi il in such a wav thit neasiee i*.
comnumcaterl. Fielri eorkei s ai»J researchers sponJri be jnvolwerj to
meet the local lenuireflents of the proennmes.

Different aspects of eiviroinenta 1 » ucatioti as nroposert m
the paper can he c<isil% inteer.itcwi with the present iof> chBtt ol
ettetaion workers, trainers, students »i»l other srotips coiceried
with the nericultural umveisit\ We hue siiffaestert earlipt the
mte^ration of eix iroiTreiital education into the curnciilim of
Hieh Schools et al. Similar aporoach can be adopted

for Intecrati lie the messape of envirorirenial education into the
etirrieuium ot aertetiltural prartnates airt trainine proeramnes cl
Haryaia Ajfpieultura] yniversitv.

ftEFErtebCES

Puma, deep, R K Puma airi Salelesh Darshsn I'lbS. liilejprattotr
of etviroiTnetitai ertueatien in the curricultsr of HiRh School84
p. ^5b*'i62, In Oesh &ittttu anrt N L. Ramatothan (Eds) Fvliica-
tiofi for envtroftnetcal Planmtw aiiri Coi«ervation Irriian
environmental Society, New Delhi.

UNESCO. 1077 frciYls in Crviroimeiita} Frtucation. lj^ESC0, Pans.
UNESCO. 1060. Etvirorwental education in the lijrht of Tibliai
Conference Education on the Move J UNESCO, Pans.

COMPARISON OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG CHILDREN
OF NQN-FORHAL EDUCATION CENTRES OF H.P. AND
MAHARASHTRA

J.S. Rajput. V P. Gupta and J.S. Grewal*

NTOOOUCTIO\

trim^r-N acH«>ols ai») mnlormal (Khicatioii {Sft) centres was coixluc*
f'rlier (Guptn et aI lOtill* yai^uel aj*t Pushpita
( J reporter) studies oi eiviroin^rital Six) inn formal science
cruil icved oi aecoixl-irv school^, ^xrce the ehiltiren studMiiji xn
the diftereit erlucatioml settines displayed almost the same
level of eiviroiTrei-rtal knowiedse about certain aspects , it was
thought appropriate to know wtietlier the children studvine at NFE
centres of two different jreojrraphical areis» Madhya Pradesh arrt
'aharashtra would he uiftuerced in their erviromiental awareness
hi t>ie sriecilic eeoeraptiical coirlitiotB airi edueatioial aspects
like currtculim coitertf rrethodoloev of teachire aiil differeice
111 their seopnvsical coixlitiois of livine. To furl an aiswer to
this prohleir eiviroir'ental awareness score* were obtained by
iisine niB ut the two aiaiiaOle eiviroiirental tools (Ra ifvt et si.
1%I» ^iiich airl Rao l'>oO). The scores were obtained for the
various sun sroup* on different aspects of eiviroimeirt and then
dJantitative an) doalitative annlvais were done in order to
irieitii'i ttie rtiffrent eormonents oi the eivirorment on which the
children of two settiies were done better or otherwise

«A>pu. OP iHE

The study was coirKicted on those children studying at NFE
centres wtio had reached the level of Class IV Kost of these
children ha 1 ixst aiieixled a-N formal school earlier and had
reache*! this level after one aixl a half to two years of study at
their respective SF£ centres Sixty children were drawn frexn the
^^E centres located in NarsiiKhearh Block of Rsirarh District of
Ma''hia Prade«h P ) aixl ^ fron the NPE centres located in

Chandracrir District of 'laharashtra . These centres were run by the
Hejtional College of Education (NCERD on experimental basis frexn
April 1970 to May 19«2

ItXX. USED

For cofrparine the eivironrental awareness scores of the

Regional College of education, BAopal, India

1S9

cftilflren stiirtsiiijr at NFF ceiTtres of H P. and Maharashtra, a stan
A^rtf eivirotT-ertal awari»ness Questionmire consistriw of 50 test
ite™ rtr.eloooH b^ Raiput et al (IWI) wis n«« 1 ifie <1 aitl ac^iris-
tered to the chtldren- A Marathi version of the ouestiomsire was
use<1 j n H^harashtra

'CrHOOOUIGY

rhe perforraiTce of the children of the two proups was con-
pared after cw^tiite their total scores airi also on iirlividual
test iter-s of the ouestioiuwire A t- test was applied to study
the sierinficajiie oi rtiffereiKe between the sub proups Each Ques-
tion was ra»*:ed in terns of perfomance of all the children
present in a ereup. The first ten aitl the last ten rarkinp ques-
tions frcrr both the sub-eroups were identified and ccrrpared with
each other the comon content areas appearinc in the first ten
arrl the last ten raiitii^r iterrs in both croups were identified.

RESin-rS ASD DISCUSSION

Co-pariaon of Non formal Aural Group of M-P.

(SFflSJP) atrj Maharaaahtra (.SPIWS)

Ihe nrher of soihieets <N). mean scores (M), starriard devia-
tion (SO) and t value for the two subcroups are eiNsn ir Table 1.

Table I. Co'^rison of (OFRMP artf NFRMS

Subjtreup N M ® t

N^RMP 60 387 a

2 'rt*

NFiws 5A 3%-59 9.31

* P= 0.01 df 5s 112

The t-ialue indicates that there is a siemficaiit difference
in the performance of children of these two croups recardinc
their ervirorr^ntal awareness- The difference mav be due to
several reasons. One itey be the course content in science and
social sttudies, arrl the other woy be the approach in teaching
these two jrroups. The third may be the difference in jceophysical
corditions of the two croups. This is further supported by the
roi'kine of all the Questions of the ewirotrsental questionnaire.
The first ten rarfeins questions were identified for both the
croups. Siciuficant differences have been fouixl in maty areas of
erviroinental awareiess in the two groups Ifciweve” three aspects
of enviforment are fount to be corron in both the subgroups.
These aspects ir ahich the two croups are found to differ in the

Ifil

aspects the children of formal urban and formal rural jrrcupa also
did emjally well. These asDects are related to home eiviro/trent
of the children.

ITie ptrfenmrce of children of the two prcupa has also been
compared on the bosia of la^t ten raikiiiE aspects as Intlcated in
Table 3, The children of NFHMP did not do as well on the aspects
like the reason for eivIhr boiled water to the patients the
abllitv to see time In the »«atc*» concept of the rotation of moon
round the earth relationship between soil sit! rocks airl the ways
of checking iron ohiceta from rustine On the aspects of rotation
of moon rouivl the earth and relationship between soil and rocks,
the children of hfRMS had perfonned rather satisfactor < ly as
mentioned earlier. On the other haul the scores of crtilrireeti of
NfJlMS Eroop were foutri to be rather poor in corrparisott to that of
NFR’dP KToup ill the areas effect of tlie stoopaye of supply of nlr
Of! the lives of flies fiinctiom of teeth the reason for frettlrie
the haul wet on touching a piece of ice diatlnetion betwer
different states of m.-itter and the effect of weather on the
arowth of plants. The children of NFR'iP did very well iii the
areas of effect of >^«atner on the srowth of plants, sources of
*ettlr» wool art! cotton. This may be attributed to the fact that
the children of NFRMP come from the agricultural belt whereas the
children of NFRMS came from the tribal bell.

Table Compariaofi of NFRMP and NFRMS sreups on the basis of
last 10 rarklnc aspects

Envirotmental Aspects Direction of Difference

NFRMP NFRMS

Reason for El'^ine boiled water to patients
The ability to read time in watch
Rotation of moon round the earth
Relationship between soil and rocks
Prevention of rusting of Iron oblects
Effect of cuttiriE off the supply of air
er- i.be liivs at tii«3
The main foction of teeth
The reason for gcttlnE the hand wet on
touchinff a piece of ice
Distinction between different slates of me
Effect of weather on the ftrowfh of plants

Cannon Aspects Amongst the Last Ten

The children of both sub(troups scored very poorly on aspecti

162

like the way of fiiriu'« the direction of flow of wiirl coicept
of evaporation of water sJiape of the earth (application part),
reason for no shadow formation in dark aril the role of skeleton
for a definite shape of the body Tlie children of both formal
urban aid formal rural groups also fared badly on the first three
aspects mentioned above. All these aspects iivolve the uirlerstan
dine aid apolication part of their knoweledce wtiich does not seem
to nave developed in the children at thi« level.

Interrelation of Results aid Imolications for
Currvculiro Development

fhe study has revealed difference In eiviroiireiital awareness
of the two groups of children stiwlying in different geocrapliical
regions of the countr\. the difference in awarei’ess scores may
not necessarily be due to lack of kiowledge on the part of child-
ren but may be due to varied enphasis laid on the teaching at
primary level subiects which incorporate in them eivirotirental
content there is need to set op curriculum development groups at
district levels Comporonts of enviroiment mav vary from block to
block district to district aid one region to the other. However,
there is iieed to develop among the students certain abilities,
skills ard behaviour which help them in observing their erviroiK
ment more keenU. Another implication of the differential perfor
manee of the children is that there is a wide ranee of perform-
ance of the children of the two states. Certain key concepts such
as conservation etprgN’, pollution aid preservation of eiviroiv
ment may he developed bv incorporating these in different school
subiects.

Ihe children of both the groups are foutd lacking in the
application part of their Knowle<lge of their erviroimeitl. This
aspect may also be taken into coiBideration while framing curri-
culim. ‘Ueariung by Doing’ is a belter alteriotive in developiiig
ewironnental awareisss This would be possible throuidi field
trips, nature trails aixl orginisiie .itudy camps for uiilerstanding
the enviroiment in its totality biological i^vsical aid social.

BEeL'tFVCLS

Gupta, V.P. J S Grewal, ai»i J.S Raip>ut. 19b2. A study of
eivirorwerrtal awareness anong children of rural and urban
schools aid ixni fonnnl education Centres, p. ^^3-(l53» In
Oe«h Eaidhu and N L- Kimarathan (Eds). Education for Fivi-
romental Ploiiirr aid Comervation. Iidian Enviroimental
*^ocietv, New Delfii.

tiaiue) , N Vedamaii .aid lohi* [hishpita (Gds.). 197ti Studies in

Education 'Science Education ( Enviro intent a 1 aid Non formal
Srieice). Puhl ication in. 12 Dept, of Education, Umvcrsity

163

of Kerala, rrivarrirom

Raiput, J.S , A B Saxena, atii V G Jarftiao. Eiviromental

Ouestioinairc. Roeioral Collecc of E^ducation, Siiopol.
(Mimeosraplied)

Sirch, M , arr! L S Rao 1Q«0. Measure of Etviroiirenta 1 Aw^rewss
(MEA). Vikram Sarabhai Corm\imty ‘Science Centre Ahiredahad.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR MITIGATION THROUGH
UPGRADING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SRI lANKA

H.T. Hnawassn*

SRI LANKA. A COUNTRY PROFILE
Physical Environment

Sri Lanka, located betweeen 5* 5S* and 9' SO' N latitude and
79* 42' and 61* S3'E longitude, is a small island with an area of
65000 sq.km. It has a central mass of hills surrounded by coastal
plains. The island is watered by many rivers which arise from the
central mountain mass and flow in a radial pattern.

Sri Lanka has a tropical humid climate with no clear seasonal
variation. It has a generally high temperature ranging from 26 ‘C
to 28 *0, except in the hill country where the temperature is low
according to the altitude.

The island gets three main types of rain: monsoonal, convec-
ticnal and depressional. The two mensuons, South-west (Hay to
September) and Kcrthwest (November to February) play the vital
role in the climate of the island.

Although the climate is humid according to the world climate
classification, the island ts traditionally divided into two main
climatic zones, Wet Zone and Dry Zone, based on the spatial dis-
tribution of the rainfall.

Natural Resources

In natural resources, nature seesis to have specially favoured
Sri Lanka. The most important natural resources in the island
include land, water, forest, energy and minerals, etc. Cultiva-
tion and plantation of crops like paddy, tea, rubber and coconut,
cover over 1.5 million ha and 0.5 million ha land has been irri-
gated by more than 20 rivers that flow from the hills,

Sri Lanka is famous for precious stones: rubies, sapphires,
cat's eyes, nconstones, as well as for such minerals as Kaolin,
Silica, Graphite and Mineral Sands. Her beaches are among the
finest in the world.

Cultural Environment

Sri Lanka has an ancient civilization and a recorded history

••Secretary, Environmental Council, Central Environmental
Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka

165

which is iTMsre than 2500 years old. In IBIS the island was taken
over by the British who ruled here for over 130 years. Since
Independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has been on* of the nest stable
countries in Asia.

Sri Lanka has a culti-national and sulCi-religious population
of about 15 nlllicn. The Sinhalese <T4%J constitute the majority
and Tamils rank next (12'). Buddhism la the nain religicn and
accounts for about 70' uf the total population. Hinduism ranks
next with 15%.

Gradual decrease in the population growth is one of the nost
reisarkable demographic features cf the country. The natural popu-
lation increase rate was about 2.1% in 1970 and 1.7% (annual
average) in the late 70e.

Relatively high rates of birth, literacy, life expectancy
and very lew rates of death, infant mortality, maternal mortality
are ether cignificant features in the demographic profile of the
country.

Significant spatial variations in the population distxibution
could be identified, k large proportion of the total population
in concentrated in the seuthweatern part of the island (Wet Zone),
Both physical and cultural features have influenced the distribu-
tion pattern cf the population.

PACTORS LBAOXIJG TO El.VIRO’.MEf.TAL PROBLDIS III SJlJ lAJJKA

PrcB the very beginning of the ancient civilioaticn that was
based on traditional agriculture, the people were close to nature
that pevided feed, clothes and shelter to then. Subsistence fora
of agrarian society helped the harwony between nature and human
beings,

Envircnsiental problems are relatively new in SriLanka. During
the first half of the century, prcbleira related to environment
had begun to emerge. Although, there have always been certain
^xprea8icnB cf concern for Issues related to environrent, serious
environmental problems could not be visualised before the second
half of the 20th Century,

During the last three decades, new environmental problems
have begun to emerge and .crcblens which already existed took an
entirely new dimenBlon. Most of the environmental problems have
emerged and developed as a result of following causes:

Pressure cf Rapid Population Growth

This could be regarded as the major source of environmental
degradation of Sri Lanka. The population of Sri Lanka has doubled
in the last 25 years and is now IS snllicnB. The density of
population has risen to 217 per sg.kn. The availability of per
capita arable land has reduced to 1/6 ha in 1980. This is indeed

T66

a very small amount for an agricultural country.

Accelerated Development

The accelerated development effort launched by the Government
has generated its own environmental disturbance. Some of the
recent problems related to the environment are directly connected
with this situation. The sudden expansion of economic activities
resulted in the depletion of valucd)le natural resources such as
foresti agricultural land^ wildlife and arable soil.

Modernization of Economic and Social Activities

Modernization has spread out to almost all Che corners chang-
ing economic and social activity in the island. These especially
affect the agriculture^ induacry, transport and urbanization.

Urbanization

Although Sri tanka has successfully controlled the rapid
urbanization process so far, environmental problems related to
the urbanization are a common phenomenon in Sri tanks. Pressure
of population growth in the urban areas causes serious environ-
mental problems such as the growth of marginal settlements (e.g.
slums, shanties) where the sanitation and other facilities are
minimal. The spread of unplanned and uncontrolled human settle-
ments have led to the development of suburbs and an urban fringe
while the inner cere of the city suffers from blight and slum
conditions.

Changing Patterns of Living standards

With the influence of the western convnercialised civiliza-
tion, requirements of people have expanded and demand for natural
resources have increased. This type of changing attitudes have
made it simple for people to destroy the natural environment not
only in normal cultural behaviour but even in industry and trade.

Poverty

Poverty itself is one of the main causes _of environmental
problems, especially in marginal settlements where the poorest
people live without essential requirements such as pure water,

created a number of acute environmental problems. The pressure of
growing numbers of urban poor has resulted in environmental
degradation of the whole area.

Unawareness of Environmental Problems

167

In Sri Lanka, for a long period of time in the recent past,
there has been little awareneea of the close relationship that
should be maintained between man and the environment. Unplanned
and environmentally unsound development has taken place without
considering the environmental aspect. This has led to a reduction
in the natural diversity and degradation of the environment. Host
of the problems related to the environment have not been consi-
dered with a full awareness of their conseguence on natural
resources and human health. It is often contended tnat the envi-
ronmental problems are connected with the irductrializcd coun-
tries. The absence of a proper legislative framework and an admi-
nistrative mechanism for the protection of the environment was a
direct result of the unawareness of the environmental problems in
Sri Lanka.

Industrial ization

The process of industrialiaation that took place during the
last decade has created serious environmental problems in Sri
Lanka. The pollution of air. water and land by the discharge rf
untreated effluents and wastes has had an adverse impact cn
snviron.mental quality in the island.

MAJOR EWVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN SKI LAHKA
Deforestation

The increasing less of forest cover can be considered most
important environmental problem in Sri Lanka. Widespread defores-
tation that accelerated during the lact 3 decades hno reached a
critical level. Sri Lanka has lost one million hectares of natu. al
forest during the last 3 decades allowing the erosion of valuaole
top soil, to increase floods to destroy the habitat rf wildlife
and to threaten the existence of fauna and flora in Sri Lanka.

The forest co\er in Sri Lanka has reduced to 2IH of the total
land area from 44% in 19B3. Shifting cultivation, accelerated
agricultural development, spread of village settlements have dep-

a\itCA'L Ti ■grt.^'r^

and intensified agricultural development have been resprneible
for a good amount of deforestation in the laland. Specially in
the hill country, the clearing of forsts has created such acute
environmental problems as widespread soil erosion accompanied by
increased seasonal flooding, slltation of river beds, reservoirs
and decreasing river flows.

Deforestation has also affected human activities by destabi-
lising water flows, silting of reservoirs and aqriculturdl net-
work, depleting groundwater, intensifying floods and aggraiacing

168

water shortage during dry seasons. Population pressure has
threatened the natural forest and its future existence. The
growing rural population has had no alternative other than the
clearing of the forest for their reguirements of agricultural
land, firewood, grazing animalSt construction of shelter and
other purposes.

It IB clear that this trend would expand in the near future.
Our existing land use patterns have not been very favourable for
the existence of forests. The situation gives very little hope
for the conservation of forests in Sri I/anka. The responsible
managerent of forest resources has become an urgent need.

Soil Erosion and Deterioration of Soil Fertility

Deterioration of soil fertility and erosion ranhs as one of
the moat widespread envirorvnenCal problems in Sri Lanka. There is
clear evidence of erosional processes such as rain wash and gully
erosion, etc., and fertility loss of agricultural areas as conse-
quences of integrated human activity. The accelerated development
and environmentally unsuitable agricultural practices have direct
connections with this prcblem. Large-scale clearing of forest for
development projects and chena cultivation have accelerated soil
erosion.

Specially, in the hill country plantation crops such as
tobacco, tea and cocoa result in soil losses. The Cem mining is
also one of the mam causes for soil depletion in some parts of
the island, soil erosion haa wasted several million tons of
fertile soil increasing siltation in river beds and reservoirs
and also reducing fertility and productivity of the eoil.

Depletion of Water Resources

The problem of water resources in Sri Lanka is increasing.
This has been caused by accelerated development and population
increase. The effect of deforestation has obviously led to inten-
Bified flooding and severe drought.

Water shortage is a critical problem in the dry zone while
the problem of water logging and damage affects the wet zone.

The main cause of deterioration of water resources is pollu-
tion. During the last two decades water pollution problems have
been increasing. Today, water pollution can be considered as the
most critical environmental hazard in Sri Lanka. It is the direct
result of discharge of untreated industrial effluents, indiscri-
minate use of agricultural inputs, and pollution caused by human
settlements.

Discharge of Untreated industrial Effluents

Various forme of industrial pollution include discharge of

169

heated effluente, synthetic polltitante, pathogenic organiBwa, oil,
addition of inert, insoluble naterials and readily degradable
orgnic matter. Evidence has proved that the industrial pollution
of water has been a hazard in the past and is likely to be more
hazardous with the rapid development of industries.

Indiscriminate Use of kgricultural Inputs

Pollution of water and waterways through agriculture is also
coiTwon in Sri tanka. Although DOT has not been found in water and
wells, fertilizers, pesticides, weedioides and other chemicals
applied for cultivation of various crops are often washed into
waterways through runoff and ceen down to ground water by perco-
lation. Addition of pathcgnic organisms, synthetic pollutants and
readily degradable organic matters through the agricultural prac-
tices have polluted the water reeourees-

Pollution caused by Human Settlements

Water pollution caused by the spreading human settlements has
become « terloui environmental hazard in Sri Lankn. improperly
treated sewage and the dumping of garbage have made various
water-borne diseases more acute. The addition of readily degrada-
ble organic matter found in human and animal waste diasolve in
the water and reduce the tife-sustaining capacity of the water.

Water pollution can be divided into four main categories:

1, PelLutien of rivers and other waterways.

2. Pollution of drinking wvater sources.

2, Pollution of ground water.

4 . Pollution of lakes and reservoirs.

Air Pollution

Pollution of air is also gradually becoming a serious environ-
mental problem especially in urban areas in Sri I,anka. Vehicle
fumes and industrial effluents are the causes of air pollution.
Evidence has proved that various corditions it has exceeded the
tolerable limits in the Colombo Metropolitan area.

Air pollution is mainly caused by toxic materials and various
gases, acidic fumes and fuel emissions discharged by industries.
Specially industries such as asbestos, rubber processing, tyre
retreading arc some of our rain oir polluting causes. Some State-
owned large industrial establishments, e.g., cement factory, fer-
tilizer mixing plant, caustic soda factory and oil refineries,
are major sources of air pollution.

Marine Pollution

Pollution has also affected the marine environment in Sri

170

Lanka. The rapid coastal develojnent could be seen during the
last three decades. Tourist industry has expanded treinendously.
Coastal settlements have spread due to population pressures. The
urbanization trend in coastal zones is being accelerated. Cstua-«
Ties of the rivers have been daunted for development. Coral mining
has increased.

All these changes have affected the natural environment in
the costal zones. While natural ecosystems have been disturbed
genetic diversity has reduced. Natural resources in the coastal
zones have deteriorated while the stability of the environment is
being depleted.

Valuable corals and mangroves have been exploited exceeding
cheir renewable capacity. Coastal water is being continuously
polluted due to the discharge of garbage, untreated industrial
effluents, oil and other human wastes.

Problems Relating to Urbanization

Unplanned urbanization and the spread of uncontrolled human
settlements have led to the growth of high density suburbs while
the inner core of the cities suffer from blight and slum condi-
tions. In Colombo.* the largest city in Sri Lanka, almost 50% of
the population lives in slums and shanties, creating numerous
environmental problems.

Pollution caused by the disposal of solid waste is also a
critical environmental problem «elated to urbanization* Very
little consideration has been given so far to this problem as
garbage is mainly used for filling low-lying areas. However,
when disposing solid waste serious consideration has not been
given to the possibility of toxic chemicals leaking into ground-
water.

Environmental problems Relating to Mining

Major environmental damage can be identified from the mining
activity for Gems, Sand and Coral.

A. Gem Mining: Unplanned (mostly illicit) gem mining spread in
most parts of the country has damaged the environment and natural
resources. In addition to disturbing the earth's surface it has
been responsible for heavy soil erosion, damaged river beds,
spreading health hazards, impairment of scenic beauty etc.

B. sand Mining: Mining and collection of sand from rivers and
beaches for construction industry have created enviroronental
problems. They reduce supply of sand available for natural buil-
ding Of beaches as a esult of reducing the -sand, coastal erosion
is accelerated.

C. Coral Mining: Mining and extraction of coral has increased
during the last 2 decades and as a result the problem ef the

171

depletion of coral raefs, degradation of an important eleirent of
environmental attraction and coastal erosion has developed.

Desertification

Although Sn Lanka does not face serioua desertification
problems auch as deaert encroachment and sand drifts, encountered
by some of the African countriea, certain trends of desertifica-
tion could be identified in the dry tone and interrnediate zone in
the island. Increasing soil salinity and soil alkalinity, gradual
change of vegetation cover* increasing coil erosion and effects
on groundwater storage are some of these trends related to the
desertifioation.

ErFOHTS FOR THE PROTECTION AKD MANAGEMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The efforts and the countemeasures taken in the recent past
for the protection and management Of the environment in Sri Lanka
could be broadly divided into four main categories.

(a) Formation of a stable National Environmental Policy in
Sri Lanka.

(b) strengthening of legislative framevork in the field ef
Cnv ironment.

(dl Upgrading of Cnvirennental Awareness.

Formation of National Environmental Poliey in Sri Lanka

The need for environmental protection is clearly stressed in
the new Constitution ef Sri Lanka. The constitution of Derecratie
Socialist Republic of Sn Lanka in Chapter G article 27(14) makes
the following provisions.

‘The State shall, protect, preserve and improve the environ-
ment for the benefit of the country."

Article 28(f) of the Constitution states,

rrgitSJ A'ftf freedom se insepe-
rable from the performance of duties and obligations and
accordingly it is the duty of every person in Sn Lanka to
protect nature and conserve its riches".

The Hon. Prime Minister of Sri Lanka issued the basic policy
guidelines on J2th August, 1980 when the National Environmental
Act came into operation.

172

Strengthening the Legislative Tram^vork

As menticned earlier, in Sii Lanka there are only scattered
provisicns relating to pollution control, natural resources tnana-
gewnt and envircns«ntal planning. Host of these statutes contain
sanctions to prosecute the violation of their provisions. However,
it IS a regrettable record that siany laws pertaining to the
enviroranent are not sufficiently enforced.

After 1980, Government has enforced several Acts which direc-
tly deal with the environment. The National Environmental Act
(HCA) of 1980 which is the haaic law for environment was enacted
with effect from 12th August. l9fll.

Several ether recent laws, the Coast Conservation Act No. 57
of 1981, Natural Reaources, Energy and Science Authority Act,
Marine Pollution Prevention Act and National Aquatic Resources
Research and OevelopraenC Agency Act. can be considered valid
exan^les.

The experiences of the laat two years shew that the role of
the CEA for the protection and sanageoent of the environnent has
to be further strengthened by enabling legislation on environmen-
tal policy and envircntnental protection. Having considered the
existing legislative framework and alternative solutions, it has
been proposed that the powers and functions of the CEA be streng-
thened by inclusion of following:

a, to be responsible for and co-ordinate all activities
relating to the discharge cf wastes into the enviroment. and for
preventing er controlling pollution and protecting and improving
the quality of the environment:

b. to issue licences to control the volume, types, constitu-
ents and effects of waste, discharge, eoussicns. deposits or
other soxirces of pollution and sub-sources which are cf danger of
potential danger to the quality of the environtent or any segment
cf the environment:

c. to require the suboussicn of all plans for maicr projects
and proposals and for changes in or abandonment cf existing
projects for evaluation of the beneficial and adverse impact cf
such plans or projects or proposals on the environment;

d, to require any local authority to comply with and to give
effect to any recoomendation relating to environmental protection
within the local limits of the jurisdiction of such local autho-
rity and in particular any recotimendations relating to all or any
of the following aspects of environmental pollution:

1 . the prohibition of the dumping of litter waste, garbage
and sewage:

11 . the prohibition of pasting of pesters or bills on walls
or buildings;

111 . the prevention of the discharge of untreated swage or
substandard industrial effluents into canals or waterways,
IV, the control of the pollution of the atmosphere.

?73

e, to require all agencies and instrufi'ents of the Government,
as well as private corporattonsi finna and entities to prepare,
and file and include in every action project or undertaking which
eignificantly affects the quality of the environment the detailed
stateasent on:

1. the envlronirentai lopsct of the proposed action^ project
or undertaking.

11. any adverse environnental effect which cannot be avoided
should the proposal be in^lemented;
ill. alternative to the proposed action:

IV. a determination that the short-term use of the environ-
ment ore eonaiatent with the nainCenanee and enhancement
of the long-term productivity' of the same; and

V. whenever a proposal involves che use of a non-renevable
resoureesi a finding must be made that such use and
comrutment are warranted.

Establishment of an Institutional framework

The NEh Mo. 4*3 of 19B0, provided for the establishment of
the CCA, This Act came into operation with effect from 12 August,
1981, The establiflhnent of CEA as a policy making and a co-
ordinating agency for the environmental protection and management
filled a wide and long standing gap created by the absnce of an
Institueinnaal framework, for co-ordination of environmental
policy making and programming in Sri Lanka. The CEA has been
established under the Miniatry of Local Government^ Mousing and
Construction, which is under the Hen. Prime Miniater.

Powers and functions of the CEA

Legislative Framework: The National Environmental Act pro-
vides broad powers, functions and duties for the protection and.
management of the environment. The Act which stablished the
Central Environmental Authority provides that the authority, in
addition to administering the Act should:

- recoiiirend to the Minister national environment policy and
criteria;

- undertake surveys and investigations relative to preven-
tion of pollution;

- conduct, promote and co-ordinate research on environmen-
tal matters;

- specify environmental quality standards, and criteria;

- publish reports and informaticn:

- assure compliance with provisions of the Act through
investigations and inspections:

- sp sampling and testing methods;

- provide the public with information and; education about
environment;

174

• co-crdinate with other countries and international organi-
zations on environmental natters;

- report to the Kinister on environmental matters and
suggest any legislative anendemencs;

- promote, encourage, coordinate and execute long-term plan-
ning related to environmental protection and management,

- encourage, promote and give effect to methods for
converting and using residues.

Environmental Council

The NEA under Section 7 provides for the establishment of an
Environmental Council to (al generally advise the Authority on
matters pertaining to its responsibilities, powers, duties and
functions and (b) to advise on any matter referred to the Council
by the Authority.

The Environmental Council was established in 1982. EinKage
with other implementing Ministries and Agencies have been main-
tained mainly throgh the Environmental council. The Environmental
Council has Members from the following Ministries:

Ministry of l^ands and Land Development, Power and Energy,
Highways, Health, Education, State (Tourism and Wildlife), Local
Government, Housing and construction. Labour, finance and
Planning, Plan implementation. Industries and Scientific Affairs,
Textile industries. Agriculture, Transport, foreign Affairs,
Fisheries, and the Ministry responsible for the Free Trade Zen*.

In addition, the Council has three members representing non-
governmental organizations. The Director General of the CEA, who
IB Its chief executive, is also a member of the Council and pro-
vides the link between advisory and in^Iementaticn processes.
The Environmental Council meeta at least once a month, and pro-
vides advice as well as co-ordination of environmental activi-
ties among large nurber of related Ministries. In addition the
members of the Council act as the focal points in their respec-
tive Hiniatriea for environmental activities and are responsible
for the monitoring of envircnnental pregramnes in their own
sectors of activity.

District Envircmncntal Agencies

The NEA has provided for the establishment of Diatric* Envi-
ronmental Agencies with Government Agent who is the principal
state officer for the supervision and co-ordination of district
activities, as the Chairman. The CEA has entrusted the fcllowirg
powers and functions to the District Environmental Agencies
(DEAs) :

a. Collection of data and information on the Envirtneent and
Natural Resources at the District Level:

b. Monitoring the action programne of the CEA at the District

175

Level as dir**ct«*d oy the AuthcM-ity:

c. Exairining cases of enwiroinmental impact of various public
and private sector activities jn the District and submitting
proposals for the environmental protection and management;

d. Advising the Authority promptly* if events of eignificant
environmental interest talcing place in the districts and espe-
cially these which may have significant adverse environmenta !
impact on natural resources;

e. Urdertalting inquiries and examination of environirental
issues or subjects referred to the Agencies by the Authority:

f. Planning and implementaticfi of an environirental awareness
program at the District level with the approval of the Authority;

g. Assisting the Authority in studies, surveys and reserch
projects on the environment at the District level.

UPGRADING CMVIRONMCNTAl. EDUCATION

Successful implementation of environmental prograiwnes ultima-
tely depends on the willingness cf people te> support, carry out
and continue such programmes. No amount of environmental legisla-
tion or imaginative protection, organisaf ion, direction and sup-
port in the actual implementation cf programme aetivities without
ptdilie co-operation and assistance.

Awareness of the importance of environmental management and
protection is obviously necessary, however, awareness appears to
be of little concern to the majority of Sri Lankans who partici-
pate in and are affected by environmental changes. This is a
compelling reason for reversing seriously declining situations
through public education cf those most directly involved and
affected by development activities, local officials and people at
operating and grossroot level. Therefore, awareness of the envi-
ronment and also of the importance of environmental management,
protection and conservation have been urgently needed. The prio-
rity has already been given for the launching of a prograitnse for
the improvement cf awareness on environment through inclusion of
environmental concerns into formal education systems and laun-
ching of public awareness programmes.

Improvement Of Awareness on Environment

The efforts taken place to improve the awareness of Environ-.
ment can broadly be divided into two groups -

A) Improvement of formal Environmental Education.

BJ Public Awareness Pregransnes of various Institutions.

Environmental Education in Sr2Lanka ^

The mam purpose of Environmental Education is to create and

176

enhance the awareness ef citizens to their cwn respcnsiSility for
protecting and managing the envircnment in the island so that
they could participate in actions to solve their envircwiental

problems.

EnMrons>ental Edjcatioi in S^iLanka can be divided into four

main categories.

A) Prirtary le\el

B) Secondary lei'el

C) Higher level

D> Professional training

Primary bevel En\ i ron gi e ntal Sdioationj

The Cdisatienal progr anme s have been evolved to create a
growing enviroreaental awareness instudents as they move upwards
in the yg-imary and secondary edjcation level. At the primary
level, a spiral cumculicn encompasses the fcllcwing topics :

a) Location ef echool and nature rf houses around it.

b) The material of which the houses are made.

e) l-ater and its uses.

d) Itow water is polluted.

•) Streams, rivers and lakes.

f) Cultivation.

g) Local food.

b) Pots and pans.

l) Local transport.

Environmntal Education in the sense ef educating cbildren in
continual relationship to tbeir eavironaent, talung then out ef
the clsssreoa' as a normal and regular practice end relating
children's education in school directly to personal erperience
outside is evident in most primary schools to some degree.

The curriculiEn of the primary level has been revised recently
by including a subject area entitled Cnviroraaental Activities' .

B. Secondary level Environme-ital Education:

At the secondary level, environmental dimensions have been
integrated into the different subject areas in the school curri-
culum. These have been done either by introducing new courses of
envirorunental studies or sciences, after aiming at the Exanuna-
taons at the General Certificate Examination — Ordinary Level
(GCE/OL) and the General Certificate Examination — (GCE/AL) or by
introduction of environmental concerns in the subjects such as
Geography, Biology and to lesser extent History, general studies
etc. A new subject on Enviro n mental Ecology has been introduced
recently for GCE/AL Examination.

Although the traditional curriculum of the formal school
education system lacked such environ»ntal contexts, the science
currictilun launched in the early sixties en^hasized the imparting

177

of linowledge stills and bahawicurs concerning the environiaent,
specially thrcug’i the secondary schc«l biojogy- cumculi-.-». During
the early 1970s further envircrerentat concepts were introduced in
Cf-e existing curnculun in the science and social studies. Inclu-
sion of Fcclegy as a subject in the GCE/Rl, Exaranaticn is ore of
the significant steps The sc*'001s have also been requested to
intoduce subjects - Karine and Inland Fishing into their curicula
jn an effort to inculcate and sustain the importance of the
younger gen©ra''icn m the Fishing industry.

Hig*!©' Level Env ironniental Education

A*- an undergraduate level, general env irctvnental courses and
modules are offered in the Biology and Botany departaents in the
Lniversities. At the University of Colc~l30i Departinent of Botany
conducts a course for third year undergraduates on “Man and
Environrent*

Meat of the Universities lo 5ri Lanka conduct educational
p-egra.—es for their first year students, designed to provide a
basic )<iicwl*dge in env.roa'iental reiatienships.

As for future activities, the Ruhunu University plans to
inaugurate a Faculty of Fisheries.

In post graduate level education, there had been significant
steps with degree courses in environnental studies or seienees
being well stabilised in the Universities. Increasing attention
IB being paid to environmental thenes in the Universities. At
present, there are several Universities which offer H.Se, eexurses
in the field of enviror^^rent

a) An H.ss, course in Environnental Sciences conducted by the
Dept, of zoology of the university of Colcrsbo.

b) An K.Sc. course in Forestry conducted by the Biology Dept,
of the University of Sri Jayewardenecura,

c) An K.SC, course in Town and ccuntry Planning conducted by
the Ko“atuwa University.

d) An N.Se. course in EnMroa*»ntal Geography at the Univer-
sity of Moratuwa.

There are also several post-graduate Diplcra courses related
to envircnaent that are being conducted by the Universities in
* "le island.

Professional Educational Training

Efforts to reach specific ta r get groups outside the school
syster are reflected in the training prc.grar»es in the goverriaent
sector. They range fren Ci\il Service Staff College to sectoral
training and research institutes. The Agricultural Ici-Service
Training Institutes of the DepartrwC of Agricultue d,.sserunate
environmental education in the field of subsistence agriculture
through the denenstratien and application of soil conservation

178

measures. Similarly, the ^ea Research Institute, Rubber Research
Institute, Coconut Research Institute and Rational Institute of
Plantation Management are involved aniong other things in the dis-
semination of environ.mental infonnation through the improvement
of cultural practices in their respective fields of activities,
by the inclusion of topics such as soil conservation, ecology,
productivity, waste disposal and recycling, use of alternative
sources of energy in processing activities etc.

In-service training at the above institutes may take various
forms: (a) seminars and workshops, (b) intensive, short study

sessions, (c) field demcnstratiens, (d) advisory services to
farmers, (e> training of extension workers. The in-service trai-
nees at these institutes act as catalysts, contributing to the
develcpenent of environmental knowicnige.

Environmental dimensions have been introduced into the induc-
tion and in-service training prograames for public officers at
the Sri Lanka Institute of Develcfxnent Administration (SLIOA) .
Karine environment is one component in the training module on
environment for the new recruits to the Sri Lanka Administrative
Sers’ice. One course in the Diplcna in public Management offerred
by SLIOA for middle and senior public officers has the following
Eiadule cn environment with a section on the marine ecosystems.

Diploma in Public Kanagenent, Economic
and Social Oevelopoent

Module: environment

(a) Concept of Environment and Devslopnent

(b) Agriculture, Forestry and Land Use

(d) Karine Eccsyctess

{e) Impact of Tourism cn the Environment

(f) Causes, Effects and Control of Pollution

In addipicn to the above, the “Project Planning and Implementa-
tion* progr am mes ineerporate a session on environmental asessment
of develcpfsent project. At the National Institute of Business
Management (NIBM), training modules have been structured to inco-
rporate environmental diioensicns. For this purpose, tbe total
discipline of Production Management has been split into eight
sub-H:<iules as follows:

1. The need for Managing the Environment - A system approach,

2. The Environment Dimension in Production Management

3. The Environment Dimension in Designing Outputs;

Designing Products

4. The Environment Dimension in Process Design

5. The Environment Dimension in Designing Production Systems

6. The Environment Dimension in Designing i Controlling

179

Human Inputs.

7. The Environment Dimension in Hana^ing Production Systems.

8. The Use of operations Research in Planning anti Developing
Envirorerertally Sound Production Systems.

About 3000 partieipantB, consisting of employees in the
public and private eector enterprises enroll in the NIDM training
programnes annually. Enviromnental components have thus been
introduced into the training curriculum of senior managerial and
adnunistrative personnel in the state and corporation sectors in
Sri Lanka.

ENVIROHMEKTAL AWARENESS PROGRAMMES AND CAMPAIGNS

The CEA, has identified the creation of Public Awareness in
environnwnCal natters, as a cop priority item in its agenda. The
basis for the Environmental Awareness Programmes and Campaigns is
the unerring recognition that the nasacs should be persuaded to
adopt and environmentally sound style of life.

The end-ajra of the Public Awareness Programne for Environmen-
tal Management and Protection (PAPCHAP). is to bring about a
concerned alertness to environmental issues at mass level. This
eventually leads to practices that will mitigate environmental
hazards and lessen adverse impacts on the environment.

PAPEKAP, is one of the eight action programmes in the 1962
Pive Vear Plan of the CEA. The project objectives of PAPSHAP are:

(a) the evolving of a etrategy for a national and local
level Public awareness Progranme and a plan for the implementa-
tien ef the strategy;

<b) the preparation ef a training progranme, based on the
problem solving process at the local level; and

<c} designing and creating public awareness materials.

As a preliminary step in the implementation of papemap. a
survey was made in all the districts, with the assistance of
District Environmental Agencies (OEAl. The purpose of the survey
was to formulate an environmental profile for the Nation as a
whole. To gather information on district basis a questionnaire
drawn up by the CEA was sent to deaa for distribution.

The Media campaign of FAFEHAP involved the preparation of an
awareness package for media materials. In this the media mate-
rials are created to generate public awareness in those environ-
mental sectors, that have been identified as priority areas and
persistent environmental problems.

The identification was dene in terms of the response to the
DEA Questionnaire.

The priority sectors are :

a. Deforestation; including forest fires, wood-cutting and
chena cultivation.

b. Soil Erosion: including upland erosion leading to silta-
tion, downstreams and chena cultivation.

c. Water PoUution; including contamination of water supply.

d. Inadequate Biomass Hanagement: includes solid waste
disposal.

The media material developed for the Campaign will include:
Videotapesj Slide/aound presentations, 16 mm films. Pesters,
charts, brochures, and exhibits.

The media materials will be field tested before they
are utilized at national level.

Parallel to PAPEHAP, the CCA also conducted other awareness
campaigns which included an exhibition and competition of photo-
graphs on environmental themes, environmental film competition,
an exhibition on recycling and an exhibition on the status of the
Environment in Sweden.

Public talhs, seminars and workshops too are being conducted
as part of the Campaign to bring about Environmental Awareness.

Three major semirars formed part of the CEA campaign towards
Mass Environmental Awareness:

1 . Sweden - Sri Lanka Environmental Week

2. Seminar for Media Personnel

3. Seminar for representatives of environmental NCOS

Coastal problems and Marine ecosystems have almost always

been a thematic area in moat of these Public Awareness Campaigns.

Role of Non-Governmental Organizations

The CCA has identified voluntary Nen-Governmental Organiza-
tions active in the field of Environment. Some of these have
environment as their total focus and others treat environment as
only one of their areas of interest.

Several NGO's specialised in a particular segment nf enviro-
nment - forests, trees, water, soil etc.

The CCA has registered those NCO*8 that could be considered
outstanding. Their role is largely to create public awareness and
alertness. Some active groups implement such programmes as tree
planting. The most constructive role they play is being alert to
the least possible damage to environment. Through their concern
they get the members of the public and state to take note of the
environmental status. The authorities, as a result, are kepc
informed of environmental problems and can initiate mitigatory
measures in time.

The CEA has formulated an action plan for NGO's. As a
direct outcome of a National Seminar for NGOs jointly sponsored
by the CEA, Sri Lanka Toundation Institute and Eacthacan-'Lcndon,
an Apex body to unify all environmental NGOs has been set up.
The work of thie body will be reviewed by the CEA.

Role of Mass Media

The initial role of Mass Media

Environmental Awareness is

leriment prt>ioets uirfer-tatcefi In the coastal ar«as.

3 . Forrulatton or a plan for mnapeoent of coral nmre on coa«ts
of Srx larka.

Information on the extent of fi.*hirc to d»temne exact situa-
tion before forirulatinc atrateeie* for its -..<ra cement.

3. Sant ruranc areas that are nost harardoua danacire the ervi—
romert. should be declared as mtural reser\-es.

6. OuarrsTm of rock should be totall> stopped.

WIU) LIFE

Vhld life IS an intecral part of the natural ecos>’stem. khld
life species are ciresertl\ threatened to decline due to rapid
destruction of habitat, exploitation for illeral export, etc.

fcildlife Protected Area

The Department of Wildlife Conseri’ation enforces laws rela-
tlnc to the protection of Wildlife ani Wildlife Re«e!^'es of 5ri
Larica. Basicall> tliere are two ts-oes of protected areas for wild-
life National Peseri'es ant Semtunes.

\ational Rexerves

K virtue of th* term ’Satioml'. the lani within them
beloPFs to the ^tate as oocio«ed to ’Sarctuanes* inwheh eri\*ate
larrl be included, \stiora1 Resei^’e* are of four kinds

1. Strict Natural Pe«erves are rot ooen to the public and
oer~its are issue*! onlx to er^er for scientific sturb, or to
officers of the Deo^rtrent for inspection. Exaeotes are some
sections of Tala. Hakeala. and Pitieala.

2. SatiomX Parks strictK protect the faum. flora and
naneral deposits. Hcpwever. the reneral public nav enter them
for purposes of observation ant study. Certain parts of the
parte are developed for touns-i ira wav •rtich will not disturb
or scare the aTUrrals.

There are at present six h^tional Parks from the larser
Yala and Wilpattu F^rks with over 3*50 so. miles each, throuch
the iruch smaller IWa Walawe, Gal Ova arri *daduru Ova SatiorBl
r^rks to naraature L^hueala Natioml Park of 6.^ so. miles -
a p er ma nent habitat for «(rT<e 150 elechants. At pre«ent,
nearly of the forest area of the country is reserved

Turelv for wildlife Ti ain ce*i *» nt-

3 . Nature Reserves are ver> similar to National J^rks hut
with the difference that am onroinc acti\it> on State larrf
within it may cotTtime on a special permit. Urrier this the
Departwent has Riven protection to the omoue Itorton Plains
and Sri Latia's second hichest peak Kirijcalpoththa (7500 ft).
A, Junele Corridors were first established in 1<570 to allow

thff Tvirsh or v»llu elephants the TaTOrkondiiwa plains to

reach the Marturu Oya at the helpht of the dry season. “Ihe
lirfcine of Reserves or Habitats is a far-sighted eons&rvation
nvasure and Jurple Corridors rtve ammals the option of
rrovine from one hone ranee to another.

Sanctuaries

A marine sanetuarv at Hikkartwa on the west coast was estab-
lished in to control the exploitation of marine resources.

Public Interest and Participation

The people interested in nature, wildlife and natural history
have fonned themselves into societies known as non-governrental
orramratton (kYjO) and play an active role in educating the
ouhlic eaTpaigmnB against forest denudation, pollution, destruc-
tion arrf ao on. The Department worta closer with fXyOs in its
conservation efforts,

Viildlife Conservation Policies and Guidelines

1. Protectlne specis whose copulation may not survive if they
are exploited for fimncial gains, e.R. elephants for tiului,
exotic fish.

2. Affordine orotection for species that will reach critical
levels if their ttabitst is denuded, e.g. wild elephants.

3 . .Setting aside sufficient, suitable natural habitats for
the survival of fauna and flora.

k- Undertakine scientific studies with educational Institu-
tions. The Department is looking into the possibility of
breeding elephants in csotlvltv. The elephant orphansge (at
Pinnawela) will be setting op the breeding centre.

‘i. Primioting an understanding of the Dcporttrrnt'a functioTM
acranc the public with the cooperation of non-goverrmental
orgo ni za 1 1 ora •

6. Establishing wildlife refuges, e.g. streams where indigen-
ous or endemie fish species breed, fish exporters catch the
Cieli to the point oC el-iwnrsition. IwpoTtant, Ttafirr-ove swarntrs
which are in danger of being reclaimed for building purposes
can also be declaretl a refuge.

7. For management of wildlife reserves it as necessary to
determine the carrying capacity of reserves. It is vital that
scientific census of wild aramal population be undertaken
using both direct and indirect methods. Wildlife ecologists
will have to decide on the poiwlataon that the valdlife
reserve can aeconmcidate without causing mtural disasters.

186

Pp^'-'sTS

Foresti-v in ‘'ri Larita

Forest cover in Sri Lnaka has oroeressivelv flimimshe<1 over
the decart®s owimr to clearing of natural forests for imeation,
land settlerent and other rt^veloorent sche'r<«s, Tn vrith a

DOPuJation of fi.I million, the forest coV“r was aDnrovirnat«»lv
oercent Since th®n heavy itroarls have heen irarte into forest ar“a
both for H-velonment and shifting cultivation- Tn with a

Dotvlation of nearly 15 million, the forest cDv<»r was estimated
to he 25* of th* area of th“ country* The Vahaweli rtevelorment
Siheme a ma lor imeation protect is to take uo arourrl 650,000
acres of forest land in th^^ country. The forest cov“r plays a
vital role in t)ie a-rsflloratlon of climatic corrli lions arrl conser-
vation of soil and water resources. Proper soil conservation
measures are not practised in acricultural an! tea lands in th“
hilly areas where cultivation is done up to the nv»r har^s. In
these areas, nih^n it rains, the riv'*rs coorine down the slopes are
loaded with silt ard erosion is at its worse. Fven cateHnents of
the hN-dro reservoirs are faced with the sa-re eroMem.

Th« timber arrl firewood reouiremerrts of the country is
another ma lor asoeat that has to be considered. The forests in
develooine countries liV® Sri Lanka are a rraior source of fuel.
At oreaert the country needs arourrl 30 million eu.ft. timber
anniallv includin* structural timber, plywood, and poles. The
current fir-wood reouiremeot is sroond J75 "hllion eu. ft. per
annuTt, Thou^ laree part of it comes from amcultural resirtu-s,
forests contribute a sizeable part of this voI\st«.

To coreerve arrl develop forests in the country, the Forest
Department has already launched proerarrrT'es to set Op marvwnade
forest plantations, firewood olantatiors, aero-forestry, etc. The
Departn^nt plants between 1^ to iR imllmn trees anrually. To
date the Forest Department has raised around 370,000 acres of
man-made forests In Sri larka and these forests produce much
needed tutber for the country. Strict conservation measures arc
practised in several Van and Biosphere reserves coverine 325,000
acres in different climatic zones. Forest laws have been atrenz-
tbened arri action tak-n to protect forests in the country from
illeral eneroachers and illezal timber fellers.

Some strateeies drawn up bv the Forest Department for conti-
mation and ifrorovemcnt of forestry are

1. All forests in tlie ccwotry •hould come within the adninis-
tration of one authority, namely the Forest Department. At
present, forests are controlled and managed by several autho-
rities such as Forest Department, Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Governnent Ajrents.

2. No land releases should be allowed over an elevation of
5000 ft. (1500 m) above sea level and these areas must be

187

protected

3 Co^tl^le the rerorcstatloT scheme which intep-ates fores-
try o’rl afrriculture This will benefit the rural people hv
provadine domestic tirrbcr fuelwood o Td forace for aiimals.

PeforestatJOT of aliaTiJoned chem lands caused by repeated
shifting aftriculturo should be adequately futlod.

5 A procrafiTTO of soil conservation for all riep'aded agricul-
tural lands should be a atralcfy with hljdi prioritv '^ch
eroded laid that has lost its surface soil should be restored
to forest cover

6 Expa-rlcH research is required to det^rwise new species for
plentinc both exotic industrial species and nrli/renous fuel-
wood species Lerurrd’nus tree species which have rapid growth
and rolativclv dnnso wood have been celtcted for th“ fuel
HOo«J plantation

7 Ecafforc^tatlon of wildlife lands depleted of vccetation
also needs priority Dual ma'ng'wnent pf certain wildlife
Zaots for both forestry and wlldlifo Is author stratcjry that
should b** ariopted

8 A stricter control on ft»lline otwrations Hone bv the State
Timber Corporation In State forests arivocatert to prevent
over-cuttin® F«llin« bv the State Timber Corporation is now
done aecorrii ne to the rules rtrownup bv th* Forest Deportment

WATER f^«Ol'KCES

Available Water Resources

Sri LH;i<a has averae© annual rainfall of about SCOcm hhieh
produces about 100 million acre-feet of vntcr Of thin about 40
million acre-f*ct flows through rivers anl Blx;ut 35 million acre
feet of wnter reaches the eroinlwator basins Kit it should bo
noted that the listribution of rainfall evaporation run off anJ
recharge to Jrround^*^te^ basins varv from aren to area within the
countr>

Present Situation

Vaior part of the "urface water la utilised for agricultural
purposes Irrigation department Is responsible for the d«velop-
nrent of wat*'r resources for imeation "ends Botwe-^n lQ7d a*d
1^82 about 60 000 3 CV* s unrt^r me tor irri cation sch**mcs were
provided with irrication fneilitics In addition future Identi-
fied irrication sdimi-'s would supply irrlcation water to 27 270
acres of new land

Also there is dcvolODment of gmu rt»,ater for domestic agri-
cultural and industrial purposes. About 100 000 acres of land Is
cultivated usinc shallow tube wells a-xt due wells from where

188

water is obtai^Ted maaiallv bv lan^s.

A number of water supplv schonos bai'e beofl amplemeflted for
utilizing surface water a:ri groundwater for dri-tone water In
towns, rural areas and estates.

For industrial purposes there is about 5 million frallons of
water per year used by the private and state organisations. In
the industrial zones construction of tub<» wells to extract about
2 million gallons of aroundwater was undortaVen.

Ninety percent of the elccticitv gen''rated in the country Is
obtainad throufth hydropower. The Electricity Board Is responsible
for the developme.nt of hyxiropower.

Very limited use of inland t.aterwa\s is mad** for transport
in this country. A 70 mile loi« canal from Colombo to Rittalam
was used dun ne the colonial period hat this needs some improve-
ment for the use aaain.

There are several freshwater fisheries develoixnent proiects
bein^ operated and constructed by the '“imstry of Fisheries. The
aim is to increase inland fish prtxKiction.

Policies and Stratesres

1. Protcet all sources of water for efficient and effective
allocation, development , utilization* control, conservation and
ma no cement

2 . Coordinate all public waters for potable, domestic, imnielpal,
aerieultural , industrial, fisheries, recreational a.nd aesthetic
and other uses.

3. Protect water oualitv, A suitable water resources act mav be
implemented to prevent people from misusing, urri*r-vitillziftjt and
pollutinc water resources.

Necessity to develop proerairmes of watershed, manajtement to
prevent erosion or excessive runoff in forested areas to preserve
and co.ntrol surface or jrroundwater supplies,

LAND

The total la.nd area of Sri Larl<a is ebotit 6,5 million ha (l6
million acres). Of this, little more than o.ne ooarter is utilized
for permanent aericulture. about 25 percent is under forest cover
an:) some of this land is used Tor shiftins cultivation, while
over AOO.OOO hectares are under natural srasslanf a»l scrublanl.
Per capita land resources, however, are shrirkine rapidly with
increasi.n,e population a.nd it is estimated that the land will be
approximately halved by the end of the ce.ntury.

The State has always been tbe blcfrast sinzle land owner in
this country. After the land Reform Act was implemented, liowever,
it has take.n la.il from private individuals and private companies.
Thus, the State is in a position to develop and roarajte R major
part of the cou.ntry's land resources and to exercise considerable

139

recuXaton' control ov-er tJio entire reowlnins PNtent.

The resporclbillty of dcvelopinsr the Itirti re?oureea nre
carried out by n janber of acencics accordlns to priorities on.}
objectives of each acenev. This ro*ults la little eoordlmtion. *
Ttie environmental imjxnct of these dcvelopreal projects arc not
alw3>-3 coasidereil- Brond classes uinler ».jiich different uses of
lanl can be eroupo<1 are’ IVhan U"e9 tncliKSinj? }>ouain,c»
tVarsapertation, Tburiss', Pecreatloa, Plantation, Irpijrated acri-
culturie. Non-lrrlsatvd snvsll scale «<i‘iculturci nM imn nwde
roserwirs anti enmls. decisions haw to he taVen rceartilns the
•uitsbilitv of lanl njt oalv amnne these broad cla«se9 but within
each cla-'s rccnrtline the use e.e. whether to «row rice or sucar
car*’ or cotton on la»l suitwl for Irritated acrlculture,

«ijch deelRiots rcoulre backcroual tTfonmttoa rerardln? the
soils, climate, vce»’tatlos, hvdrolorv anil other attributes of
latl for each Dro>''Cted us**, for these jiurposes an oreanientlon
with th" T’ci'ssar^ tuI t »-<hscipll»rv eswrtiso to assess the
sultabilltv of lo.tl for \.srio»»s ixstestial uses arsl esaUnte the
eorre8f>osUnc costs a.>l l>e'V‘fits of each of these use* Is nhsehi«
tcly essential, Clood lask««c planninc will ensure only that Innls
are allocated for oopronriat** uses. Also continued lanl use
tranpcte*eat is essential if the las' resource ,aro to be prcscrvxd
without dceradatioa.

Implcwntatlon

In view of the a\-o\s, ststeeios the use an) marnterrent of the
land resources of Sri Inrka will recutre:

1. Adoption of n Uinl Use Policv.

2. F9tAbllBlTW!nt of an acwncy, preferably n Usnl Use Authoriti
that will,

a. establish « set of la.nhjse cul<h»ll,'y'5 to be foUowcrl bv
all lanl users,

b. provide baste 1 nf ormtios on the characteristics of the
lanl resources an! its suitability for different usea.

c. provide assistance ih loni use plannins,

d. TObitor current uses of J.anl with respect to both the
Bpiiroprlateness of use ant the batartt of lanJ decrndatlo.n
resultlas Trent fxjor mawcement.

e. have power to take actios to correct misuses of lani
referred to in (d) aliove,

r. rcccntrcni any chanjros in lecislatlon reoulred to protect
the lani frum degraAstioa ant destructive ha?ards nnl to
preserve it as a r»’n’waWe resources,

3. Setting up of a hlrt> l»vel later-Jflnlsterlal Comlttoe to co-
ordi.Ttte policies ant actlWilcs aiMns different lonJ using ac^n-
clcs a.iJ to ensure that tlic laniiise t>ollcie9 at»l cuidelir»,s ore*
followed.

19Q

RFFKT5PNCFS

De Alwis, K A. 1982. A strat^e^ for thf* use* aifl maurwot of tl «
laid resources of Sri LaSta. 'liiwKjjErai’hrd ,

Atot\*’ious 1980 . Co<»*it coTservatioi. •'pecial Report, rcoiomc
Rpvicw 5 ( 8 ) .

Lons. t98o. Journal of thp Natur** Prot»*ctioi of Sri

Lari<a. Vol. 15 , 10 .^.

NanavaVkara. V.R. 1981 . Natural fore«!t polic\ dnolopnoit- 1 1 Sri
La-i^a. ^ri Poro'ter !?•

Resource Oov«»lopme»Tt. 19PO- FVjbl 1 ca t i o •» of t}><« Vnistrv of
LaTds aid taul Oeveloiment , Tiforwatioi S«*rvice.

Vidurawa. 1979. Special IHiMieatlol o-» Colscrvatiol. Vol. 4, to.1.

192

Sl>NARY OP SILENT SPRING

The problem* Carson addressed in Silent Sprln* can be under-
stood readiJv from an Important Quote that occurs early In the
book "How could intellipent bejnes seek to control afew urvanted
species Pv a method that eontananated the entire ervlromient and
brouKht the threat of disease and death even to their own kind"’"
(Carson 1^2, p. 8). In this one question. Carson makes it clear
that she is dealine with a complex cost-benefit problem. That
IS she acknowledeed that we face unwanted species, twt she xoes
on to note that the methods by which we deal with them causes
harm to the entire erviroiment and even causes a threat of "dis-
ease arrl death" to ourselves.

Pnrlv in the book she also eives a quotation that sure up
her evnor areument "It is mt mv contention that chemical insec-
ticides mist never be userl. T «lo conterrl that we have put paisor>-
ous ani bioloncallv potent chemicals inrijscrimimtely into the
Harris of persortf larjrelv or wholely icmrant of their potentials
for harm” (Carson 1R62. d. 12). Here airain we can see the maior
insiehts into Carson’s arjmment. *?ie does not believe that all
uses of inscticide must be banned, an assertion for which she has
been blamed. She does however contend that the people to whom the
bioloncallv potent compounds are entrusted, are in fact unpre-
pared for their use.

'The evidence ur>on which Carson bases her case Is extraodino-
nlv complex. Carson made detailed irauiries into the basic
scientific literature relevant to the study of pesticides. At
the very least this foray required her to irs/estieate*

• baste chemistry of pesticide molecules

• water eorrtaminatlon

• soil contamiration

• aesthetic dejrradation from herbicide

• death of robins from treatment of elm trees with DOT for
Dutch Flm disease

• seneral bird mortality

• fish mortality

• wildlife damaee from efforts to control the Kypsv moth in
the Northeastern United States, and the fire ant In the
Southeastern Umted States

• contact people have with insecticides throueh house-hold
products and residues in food

• huran orRamsmal toxicoloBV

• cellular toxicoloev

• pesticides as a possible cause of cancer

• destruction of natural enemies by insecticides

• resistance of pest insects to insecticides

• alternatives for pest control other than chemicals.

A brief examination of the extensive literature cited in her

193

references indicates thst •he studied each of the above problem
b\ detailed itxiuirs in the scientific literature, ^vrthesis vas
her rest irriortant BChiei-e^wnt. and the effort required a preat
deal of readme beNund her oripinal training It is true that
Car*on did rot do orieiml scientific research for Silent '^princ,
but it IS clear that «he perfomed a un-vu th arrf difficult tft«k
of rsmthesiring pieces of evidence fnn uidelv scattered sources.
It is the scientific triw^ of «vntheeia for uhich «he should he
re-ne-faered

IMPACT OF STlfST ‘^ING

Silent •^prirc net mixod revnews when it appeared in fublic.
'tost reviewers were hithlv positii'e hut ft few review* frw* the
scientific cfnmnitv deserve a «pecial notice because of their
hichlN noeative viewpoint towards the booV Those few critics who
ccrT)laineri about Silent ^prine based their obieetiona on three
points (a^ the booV woa unfair to reputable and honorable profe-
sslomls (h) Car«on hid ro credentials towprlc in the field of
peetieidea and pest control <cl the hooV wis rot balareeri in
that it did not soell out the benefits front pesticides as vfell as
their detrimental side effects (tWrbv lo62 Baldwin 1^2)

It Is bevorri the scope of this cwoer io exsTune these co^v*
Plaints in detail «uffiee it to "Bn that Carson was hichlv
critical of the erto^Ioeieal profeseion. Hsrv entortploclst*
took offewe at her castication of their acientifle work airi
irtemtv but It is itroortant to rote that a few entofpolorists
aereeri wholehesrtedlv that their profession had been «i.ept awav
bv the enthusiasm for insecticides (Perkins lhS2, p. 32-331*
these entomologists felt that Rachel Carson had described the
situation quite accurately.

The seconl point, that Carson had ro credentials to deal with
pest control science is a rather vacuous clam because msr\
people who have become interested in the problers of peat control
in fact have ret been trained "peclficallv iti the science of pest
control. In fact it can be orcued that trainirc to be a nest
control scientist is imderjuate for looklnc at the entire spectnrri
of effects caused bv pesticides. Car«on as a biolocist had a~ple
qualifications todeal with this field.

The final point that Carson wa* urtialanced. is true. 9ie
stated explicxllv that it was not her intention to cover the
berefits created bv the u«e of pesticides because those pointe
had been well covered in other literature. <hc bMieved quite
atrorclv that the Hetriiiwntal effects of pesticides had not been
exaiMtied thorouchlv and it was her intention to devote her atten-
tion entirelv to this problem.

Vientifieallv Car«on ehoold be credited with a fite loh of
svnthesis. Pespni that whe articulated for the first tire a
eerrorehensive theorv of the ecolocv of pesticides Her material

194

Indicated that these compounds have jtreat mobility in the envi-
rorment. affect oreanlsms other than those ajrainst which they are
directed, create hanr or hazards to wildlife airl people, and are
technolosncallv vulnerable bcause of the fact that they destroy
beneficial insects (predatory and parasitic insects) and because
pest insects can evolve resistance tothem. Many policy studies
have been prepared since Carson's work appeared, and they all
come back to these same points, Vhat Carson achieved was the
ability to see the entire picture before anyone else had put all
the pieces of the peat control problem torether.

Her affect on public policy In the United States was not
drarmtic in the short run. Prestderrt John Kennedy was aware of
th** book arrJ directed his President’s Science Advisory Cwrmittee
to prepare a study on the problems enunciated by Carson. Their
report. "Use of Pesticides" was Issued In 1<363. and essentially
vindicated Carson's maior thesis (President's Science Advisory
Committee 1963). Minor letrislation was passed by the Senate.

Carson's ultimate political effect, however, did not come
until several years later. In a very way, her attitudes toward
nature were a ereat atlevilus for founrtin* the Enviromiertal IVo*-
eetion Agency in the United States. Likewise, the passage of the
National Ervironeental Protection Act and enactment ofthe Pederal
Environnerrtal Pesticide Control Act were stinulated by the dis-
course ehe initiated. Even today In the United States and Furope,
Carson's rature philosophy remirs a powerful guideline for the
emrirermental political movement that continues.

CARSON. PESnCIOES AND TUC THIRD WORLD

It is relatively uncontoversial to argue that Silent Spring
had spositive imsact in the Western world. As noted above, the
effect of her book occurred both in science (the creation of an
ecological theory of pesticides) and in political ani philosophi-
cal values about nature. For persons living in the Third World,
however one can raise the legitimate Question of whether Carson's
work has relevance. Specifically, the need to increase agricultu-
ral productivity arri the itigierative to control public health
diseases rnijdit lead one to conclude that the needs of the Third
World, particularly the tropical countries, are such that insec-
ticides., despite their detrimental effects, are far nore valuable
and essential than they are in the tenperate zones of the indus-
trialized and developed world.

■Maman ?»r'iaug argued in fnis vein in the early 197D's. he
made an impassioned plea that TOT and other pesticides were
essential for food production In the ThlT^ri World aril that the
envlromental policies forcing the banning of DDT in the United
States were very dangerous for n»ny people living outside that
country (Borlaug 1971).

195

More recently Dr. C. R. r^shns Murtl arjnied that pesticides
are an essential part of the strategy for crop protection in
lirlia (Krisbm Ma-tl arrf Dikshith 1032). Current lc?v levels of
productivity artJ substantial losses to insects of essential
cereals ani pulses lend credlbilitv to Krishna MLirti's arzTjr^nt.

Critics of strons ervirotneirtal action to limit the use of
iraecticides ertyiasiM the benefits of the pesticides rather than
their detnirental effects. As rated above, Carson did rot cover
the benefits and thus one can raise the ciiestion of vhether she
fullv understood the use of these compounds in settlnzs other
than temperate zone, industrialized countries.

Stronr daferriers of Rachel Carson can pit forth an equally
en^aeins set of arcuments about why her book has relevance for
Third World countries. First Carson orox^ded a unified ecoloirical
theory about the behaviour of pesticides. AltSourfi the data upon
h*iich she corotnicted her theory was based entirely on temperate
zone climates, it Is possible that the theory has validity in the
Third World. If it does, then unreeulated and h»aw uses of pes-
ticides in the Third World ray darnaees there lust os they did in
the developed countries.

Second, the recent disaster at &>onal. in which thcrusarris of
people were killed and evermore thousands iniured. raises a
ouestjon about the total social irpaet of pesticides. That aeei-
dert centered on the nanjfacturlnz of carbaryl . in which » Umon
Carbide plant leaked a toxic eermonert involved In the synthesis
of the insecticide. The accident was not related directly to the
agricultural use of carbaryl. but one nust expect accidents in
industrial production. Therefore it is possible to arpue that the
use of pesticides in Third World countries will inevitBblv be
associated with aemp rate of industrial accident. That situation
trust also be concluded to hold for the developed eountires in
which industrial aceiiinnts with che>ricala like DBCP are now well-
krown. Seen in this lictit. the probletn is not that an accident
happened in Etiopal but that the tranc consenuences were too
horrendous for anw society to bear. Carson's plea for irtellicert
treatmerrt of these coraounis becomes on inportant rmssare to the
Inevitable problem of industrial accidents. Most of these acci-
dents, especially the cnosslv tranc ones, are due to careless-
ness. stupidity, or inc<rrr>etence on the rart of th* rrarwfacturer.

Firallv, Carson advanced a stronc nature philosophy in which
shepietured ratural entities as having' sacred rishts. So reason
exists to thirk that there fthv not be sralajrous beliefs in Third
World countries. For example, the Jalra of India may have fee!-
Inzs about rature that in ttrporfant ways reflect Carson's views.
Science Is inevitablv affected bv such value lud^ements, arri
weshould expect the scientists of the Third World tobe irfluenceri
by such philosophical assmptions in their society lust as Carson
was. Mary ewiromental scientists of the Western world have
views abcut the sacred aspects of nature.

196

DOFS CARSON'S ECOLOGICAL TTIEORY OF PFSTICIDFC
HOLD FOR THE THinD UORLD''

Th« first component of Carson's ecological theory of oesti-
cirtes was the proposition that the action of the chemicals was
neither confined to the tareet species nor to the target area of
application. Material cycline is a maior component of modern eco-
systetn theory. The notion that pesticide action is not confined
to the place of application is subset of the concept of material
cvcline in natural avstems. The cvcline Is rtucto several factors*
mobility throueh air, water or soli mobiitv throueh transport by
biolojrical oreanlsms and persistence in both physical and biolo-
gical media.

We have no reason to doubt that pesticides applied In tropi-
cal climates will have mobility throujth physical and biolosrical
mechanisms. The one part of Carson's theory that is in owestion
is the leneth of persistence of various compounds. Carson based
her theory of mobilltv upon lone-term persistence, especially bv
the chlorirated hydrocarbon insecticides that were widely used
durine the late 1950s and early 1960#. Since the time of her book
many of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides have cone out of
use in the temperate cone, and some have core out of use in tro-
pical areas because of resistance by insects to these ecmpounls.
Nevertheless, a Question can be raised "whether the persistence
of insecticides will be the same in tropical clitpates as in the
temnerate climates’"

Or. Sethurathan arri his eolleaeues at the Centra] Rice
Research Institute. Cuttack (India), have studied persistence of
Insecticides in the soils of tropical India (Sethumthan et al.
1982). They ar«ue that the cowlitions of soil moisture, orjtanic
matter, redox status, acidity, temperature, sorption-desorption,
and mineral constituents all can affect the rates of deeradation
of pesticides. They advance some speculative reasons about why
some compounds may have a hijrher derradation rate in tropical
soils than in temperate soils, specifically DOT, enrtrin, hepta-
chlor ani hexachlorohexsne (also called benzene hexachloride).

Given the different ^^ys^cal conditions of tropical environ-
ments compared to temperate envirottnents , we should not easily
generalize abut the derradation rates of pesticides in different
rejrions. Clearly, Sethunathan's results indicate that derradation
rates must be studied as a site-specific problem. It is is found
that some of these compounds riejcrade more rapidly under tropical
conditions, then the dancers associated with movement of these
compounds away from their tareet site may be different than the
danrers in a temperate zone.

Despite the differences in derradation rate that may be asso-
ciated with tropical soils, it is clear that insecticides used in
tropical ervironnents do have adverse affects on non-tareet orra-
rasms in the tropics. For example, there are many instances of

anri rublic health i-rcirtance. Hjch »ite-"pecific vork
repairs to he Aor» to unrterstarrt fuil\ the affects of Carbon's
thec-^ in treoical area*, Hit at the -«r-ept there s cc — .s m r®a«on
rot to accept fer theo'^ of the ecoloo of pesticides as \-alid an
all areas of the vo*-ld.

Despite the that the use of insecticides are likel\

to cause in both the d*\*eleped and the le«s de\*slcped parts of
the clobe. it is ircortart to r«-ie-- b e'~ the benefits the«e cerr-
roaints can return. Tnrlia fer I'xa ule uses an a\"e’"ace of 330 cAia
o'" pesticide in its ac^icultursl f^'oAiBtion (Krishna •Ixrti and
Dikshith 1®?2). India's nee aaelds tend to rarec fpcra 1200-2700
kc/*ia. Cora-er'ela, Japan use* c^ha of pesticide in acracul-

ture. and rot unetpeetedlN Japan's nee >ielcls are eonsiderabli
Mshe- Sfao kc/ha (Jbntan 1070». *«t all of the differeroe

between Indian and Japanese nee >-ieId5 can be attributed to lack
of u'C of pesticid“«. but we should rot fc-set that pesticides
are one ewronert of hijrh \*ield« in the Japane«e acro-#co9>-«ten.
'test pest eo~* T Pl •eierti«t« belie\"e that trooical nee can
increase b> tOOO kjr/ha oiven the use of rradern pesticides.

Another sinla- exa-x>le is of cowpea* (lirro umuculata).
■This js an iTw'^r* lenne c"«i in )ow altitude, warn tropical
areas wush as Afnea, India and Latin A’se**aca. Cowpeas "how
♦teetaeular irorea-es in sield *Aien treated with low arcunts of
insecticides. Sinlarli. Piceon peas (Caiartis caian) can h3i*e its
Nhelrts arcrea«e fren AOO ke/ha to XCO kz/ha bi ludicious use of
ch*~iciil#, Pipeon peas are i-portart in India and East Africa
(Sireh and \-an Dnden

ALTERXATrV’DS TO TK: C«EyiCALS

Rachel Carson pointed out in 1*^2 that nars altermtiv'ts
we’-e beire dl5co%'e-*ed to the indi^cri-nnate u^e of insecticides
fo'" insect control. It is bevond the scope of this rai*r to trace
and describe the nsr^ i-rwrtsrt adv-anees to pest control seieose
that ha>"e been rade since 1®62 («ee Perkins I'iSa, p. 6l-126).
'teffiee it to rote that a ’-o-jor a<Smrce was des-elopnenl of the
corcept of irtecrated pest rorocer^rt (iPtl ta- irtecrated pest
cortrol (TPC). The Food ard Amcultural CSrpamzation of the
United Vations desenbes irc as follows* "Integrated pest control
is a pest rssnsce-ert si-ste-; that, in the ccrtfxt at the associa-
ted emromer'- arrl the poruZatioa di-nancs of the pest species,
utilises all suitable technicues and cethert in as ero p atible a
rarrer as rairtains the pest pofulatioro at lewis

below those causirc econonue in.iurve (Erader l^T'S).

It is i-pcp-tart tonole that IPM and TPC are based on two
i-portar* concepts. Fhrst, itsect rests -hould be treated if and
oniN if Ihev exceed an ecorotne thre«hoid, i.e., a population
lewl atwe a inmrin and suTficlentli hiph to Tustify expendi-
tures fo- pest cortrol tec»Mnloe^. Second, both IFM and IPC are

200

based on the notion that natural mortality factors (such as
natural enemies and jranetlc resistance of crop plants) are the
core of a sound method of pest control practices. Chemicals may
be useful in IPM/IPC atratesrlea* iMt the core of these techmlo-
jnes lie In the use of resources other than chemicals.

A notable example ofdevelopmenta on rice in India of IFW/IPC
occurs in Orissa on the eastern part of India. Rice in this area
is subiect to damaffe from stem borers, (rail midges and the brown
plant hopper. Better mara(rement techmoues have been found by
usinjr sho“t season varieties, developin(r strains resistant to jtall
midjces ard stem borer, destruction of stubble after harvest, and
elimimtin/r use of Insecticides during the growth of ratural
insect enemy populations (Brader 1979).

Evidence la abundantly clear from this and other examples
that a highly profitable rescirch line Is the development of IFW/
IPC for many crops In marv areas. Because of the reliance on (ten-
etlc resistance and natural enemies, this research itust be highly
site-specific to taVe account of local soils and local climates.

CARS0*J‘S OMISSIW

Rachel Carson, for all the «<knirable features of her booic,
omitted any serious discussion of the fact that agriculture in
the developed countries has undergone a massive transformation in
the first half of the 20th century. This revolution substituted
capital, such as machines and chemicals, for hisnan labor. Many
fanners were forced out of business djrlne these years, but those
remaininfr in agricultural production enioyed higher Incorres after
the change took place.

A maior ouestlon that scientists and policy makers of the
Third World rrust answer is to what extent should the Third World
countries repeat the technological revolution of agriculture that
has already occurred in the developed wrld"’ This Is a difficult
question, because the relationships between capital inputs and
demands for hisnan labor in agriculture are in flux. Suffice it
to say that careful thought needs to be given to how rruch labor
ai»l how much capital should be utilized in Hurd World agricul-
ture. The use of improved pest control technology, such as
ITN/IPC and petlcldes, might change the balance between capital
and labor, and it would be inadvisable for Third World countries
tolet that balance chensce without developing alternative employ-
ment for people leaving agriculture.

CCWCLUSIONS

Rachel Carson's book may be 23 years old, yet It contains an
important theory that Is valid today. Effective and envirotmen-
tally sound pest control is essential to sustainable development
in the Third World. It 19 only by acknowledging Carson's theory

201

that those suataimhle technologies for pest control can be deve-
loped.

RFFEREVCES

Raldt^n, T.L. l'>62. Cbenocels errt Pests. Science 137* 10^2-10^3.
Borlaus. Nonrern. I*)?!. Harttind et»l C%vlli*ation at Arother Cross-
roail. Food and Acriculture Orjwmxation, Rotre. 73 paces.
Brsrter, L. 197^. Intecrated pest control In tlie developinc world.
Ann. Re\. Entorrol. 2A 225-25*».

Brooks, Paul. 1‘172. The House of Life. Greenwich, Fawcett Ribli-
catiars, Inc. 303 paces.

Carson. Rachel. tR82. Silent Sprins. Boston, Houditon Mifflin Co.
3S/I paces.

Carhy, W.J. tP62. Silence Mias Caraon. Chew. Enc. kews to (Oct.
5)- 60, 62-63.

Dover, M. and B. Croft. 1^4. Geitinc Toudi Rjblic and

the Mampefsent of Pesticide Resistance. World Resources Ins-
titute. Waahirston, 80 paces.

Kiritam, Keiri. 1R7R. Pest iniSiueefrent in nee. A. Rev Entcewl,

tk- 27R-312.

Krishna 4jrti, C.R. and T.S.S. Pikahith. IR82. Aoslicatlons of
biodeeradabie pesticides in lirlla. p. 237*305. In F. Hattn-
Riura, and C.R. Krishna Hirti (Eds). Biodeeradatien of Pesti-
cides. Pleftn Press, V.Y.

Perkins, J.H. IR80. ‘The ouest for innovation in agricultural
ertftToloey, ir45-1^78. o. 23-fio. In* D. Pimentel and J. H.
Perkins (Eds). Peat Control* Cultural and Ervarorwental
Aspects. Vestview IVesa. Boulder.

Perkins, J.H. 1R82. Irsects. Eiqierts arxl the Insecticide Crisis,
Pleruti Press, N.Y. 304 naees.

President’s Science Advisory Committee. IQ63. Use of Pesticides.

Govcririent Printlns Office, Lashinrton. 2$ paces.
Eethumthan, N,, T.K. Adh>^s, and K. Rachu. IRSZ. Microbial
decradation of pesticides in tropical soils, p. Rl-llJ, in;
F. Nata«nira afti C.R. KrishTO Ftirti (Ed«). Eiodeeradation of
Pesticides. Plerus Press, N.Y,

Sinch, S.R. and H,F. van Emden. 1R7R» Insect pests of cram lecu-
mes. A. Rev. Entcrol, 2k- 253-278.
lt2/AtD Pest Kiracerrent and Related FnvirotTneBtal Protection
Proiect. 1976. The Acromedical Approach to Pesticide Manace-
(pent. Umveraity of Califormo, Berkeley. Mimeo. 113 paces.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Sen Deo Shain**

DEVELOPING COUlifTOIES

The less-affluen* countries, iruny of them recently Indepen-
dent from colcmal powers, have been variously called backward,
under-developed, undeveloped, less-developed or developing. Two
more recent terms in use are 'Ihlrd World' and the 'South'. Latin
American, African. West, South and ScKith-East Aslan countries
have been included in the cateRorv. The countries have some simi-
larities, The maioi feature they share is the constraints Imposed
bv the nature of their past and conten«x>rary Involvement In the
world economy. They are broueht toRether mainly by the relatlorv
ship they have with the Rlobal economy in their depedance on the
economic conditions and social and political processes of the
First and Second World.

Factors for bathwardnosa

The fact that developing countries lie between the tropics,
has led to suMestiorw that the 'harsh' envirennent could explain
the lack of development. It has been claimed that the "Ihlrd
World' Is deficient in mtural resources necessary to sustain
development. A recurrent imafre of the Develooine-countries is of
thre 'teemin* milliotts* of people. Could over-population explain
their backwardness^ Racist arjeuments suesest that 'natives’ are
■inferior' or ’indolent'. Most of the Developln* Countries were
colonies of Europe could the explanation be colonial exploita-
tion'’ It IS until ely that there is aov one slnxle factor which
can be identified as the cause of poverty. There are many coun-
tries, manv contrasts, marrv causes. In recent decades there have
been increasine efforts, bv both the more developed arri th>» less
developed countries, to secure the development of the letter ar»l
ease the poverty of the DeveloplnR Countries and their peoDle,

Population

There are now more than three billion people in the Dev"lop-
im Countries out of a slobal population of over 4 billion. 'This
hiph proportion has come about throuRh persistently hifdi rates of
population increase, larpely resultiuR from the decline in death
rates accompanied by contlnulnfc hl|di birth rates. The population
of the Developing Countries as a whole and of most of its parts

•Dept of Ceogrephy, nahakashal Arts college, Jabalpur, inJia

203

has ffTown exponentially. Ratea of iMtural jrcrcase rapc«. for th"
TOst part, between 2.0 and 3.5 Derc»nt per annum, at vbich a
population can rrore than double within the lifetitre of a z«*rT’ra-
tion. Bv contrast, in the crore-d*veloped parts of the world,
population increase in row rostlv below one percent per armr.
Fanlv pJanmns anl control have ficured itroortantlv m discus-
siors on population in the Hilrd korld in recent decades. Plan-
rant arri control have often be-n considered onlv in terms of
liffritinz or reducirar copulation, whereas they shpuld be seen rrore
obiectively as the means wherehv the be.st potential la fulfilled
for people both natiomllv and indlviduallv-

AGRICULTURE

Ameulture is the source of food sucolies for Develorine
Countries. Tn manv cases it also provid“S the Isilk of exports to
suDprt the external balance of pa>'ments art! is the •ource of raw
materials for proeessinsr and *nanjfa'*tiiriTtt sectors. In about
35 rcrcciTt of exports (bv valo«) from the develppxnr w«or7d
(excludinr Chiro) were of aericulturai oriein. For test farmers
aenculture is part of wav of life rath®r than siirplv an occupa-
tion. It olays a kev role in the efrployment structure where
neartv 60 percent of th® workine population is erplejed. EVit
aerieultural production tn n^rr^ artaa or the Third Vorld has
failed to keep pace with the crowlh of population. The food
production in the countries is increaslne 3 percent per aims,
while the demand of food is increasins: 6 poercent per annum.

The ffTowth of production of food trains has partly been due
to itsreasr in areas cultivated, and partly to a irodest Increase
in yields, but productivity la low conT»rert with that in the
advanced industrial world, both in terms of yields per hectare
and In terms of labour eroloYed, There are substantial vanatiotM
within the Third Vorld, both arone the raior rezion and within
them at the level of irriivifioal countries, and it is necessary to
look more elosclv at Bjtricultural production in the context of
rural fra-rework and the physical enviroment of the Third Vorld,

MIKING

The Developing Countries are «tc>ortant aouce of minerals
and have about 38 < of th** world's estirated iPineral reserves.
Ibwever, these are not distributed equally and the area has
greater reserves of some minerals than others. It has over half
of the known reserves of phosphate, tin, fluorspar, cobalt,
copper, tin arxi mckcl. The mircrala continue to provide an
important potential resource for the Develooine Countries, both
as a base for industrialization and a source of export earmnes,
■IheaB countries produce one-third of global ndneral output, con-
sume less than 10?i of the total, and provide half the n-^ds of

204

the caoitalist countries. To rtate exploitation of the minerals of
the rt'^veloDinc worW has been primarjlv m the interest of the
CDnsumine nations rf the rtevel(jpe<l world which do not ntc»s»arilv
accord with the b“st irrterests of the prodocine nations.

ESVRGY

Provision of ery'rjn is an itrportant factor in the develoo-
ment crocess. There js a fR>od correlation between levels of
enerey consimD*ion and economic output, with the irrhjstrialized
countries havine levels of conswnption ereatlv in <»xcess of those
of develooine world. Reflectinc the economic proeress of the
Third Korld its share of world commercjal en»'rcy consirrption
rose from in 1^55 to 20. 3< in 107^. The developin? world is
well endowed with enerfr\ sources. Tliird Uorld countries provid®
BO% of world enerjry exports but account for only 25?^ of th<»
world's consumption. However, the distribution of these reserves
IS uneven. Reserves of water power are considerable but vtiXxr^-
tion to date is limited onlv an estimate of total available.
The possibility exists of developing ruclear power plants in the
Third horld. by trarsfemne developeo world technology.

INTJUSTFIALTZATION

For fTUch of the period since 19^5. countries of th“ Third
world have given considerable attention to th® expansion of
marufacturlne industry. A crucial ooroblem of these countries is
the provision of Job*. "R < spatial distribution of mamfacfurlne
industry iti these countries shows a marked degree of concentra-
tion at various levels. As a broad g^neraliution Latin America
has crade tnast prowess lO industrialization, Africa the l^ast,
with Asia occupvnc an ntterTtie<liate oositvon. Tn terms of wplov-
ment, A^ia has the largest share of the region's irriustnal
workers. The bulk of Latin America's industry is conc-ntratod in
some 30 urbary-industriol concentrations. The industry developed
in the Third World remains restricted m diversity, on lelativelv
snail scale, spatially concentrated and of limited sicmficance
in global terms. Thua the inrtustvioliration has failed to keen
pace with porwlation growth and with the concentration of people
in the cities. Conseoucntly, the Third World contiTvj-s to face
very high level of unerrplovmtnTt and nnd®remDlovm“nt,

UBBAMZATION

Since the Second korld War, urbanization has taken place in
the develnpinc world at a oaee alxi on a scale onlv paralleled by
the experience of Western Europe and N’orth Anyrica n the nine-
teenth C“nturv. Over 2Cfi people m th® Third Uorld live in towns
of more than 20,000. Only l^tin America closelv approaches the

205

level of urb.imrfltion in Furoo" arxl in North America. HevelopcH
t»orld citie"? arri tnvm confront orohloir*! that are more plerrwTrtarv
than those e)>:p<'rienced bv scttlew»nt« in economlcalJv advanced
countries. Yet sem** of the bieecst Third t.orlri cities have liter-
alW the uorst of bot)i worlds. Covernrnrts hav" considerable
power to irfluence the urban situation. Encourajsemnnt of the
positive a*pccts of souattinc bv the active planmne of site anti
service scheTr*«s could Uecerr** parrt of an urban strateev for the
d«.velopine uorld.

COVCLUSTtW

Some Ocvelopitiff Countries have ftlreadv made projrress. The
sp*'cial circumstance" of th** poriod since 1b73 have created the
distinctive croup of the oil-cifportin* countries which have
massive caoitil surpluses hit also a fex olh^r countries have at
l«asf Drocressed up thp league table of per -capita incom".
Petwen 1060 otrl 1<37Q ^vrla, Hon« None and Korea each achieved
rates of ircrea"® in GOP in excess of a v*Br.

One can nevertheless point to som" sirns of optjnasm
and profress. In riich of devrlopine world access to health care
anti to •yiueation has imorovcil economic structures have
diversified some countries at least have beeo<ne effective
competitors in tiic world marh®t for marufactured ropiis. Yet many
eountri»s, regions ani m"n, women and children, remain poor, both
in relativ" anl ab«olute terms.

Awareness of the problems of povertv has increased over the
past three «lccades nrrl there is creater concern for socurlnz
proer®^. The IWelooirv horld has 6®®n [v>rsistont in its efforts
in this direction. Ther*’ has been a trrowine awareness of the
Txit^ntinl aviialable for odvooce in the Developinjr Countries. One
n'-tfi of particular concern is th“ rornulation ani spread of
techmoii'’® of d'-velonront th.it are most appropriate to the needs
arrl ondowwnts of Third Vorld countries. Study of the Gnowaphv
of arv on" country of th" Third Norld reouire more detailed
consideration in th«* context of specific phvsical, historical,
social, economic ani political circumstances of the country.

Tbo onvironnental conservation contribution in the Devclop-
ine Countries can be made a variety of scales* jelobal, Interna-
tioml, national, repionel or local. N^nv of tlie structural
features of th® dcvelopir* world arise from ani can he alleviated
by intprnatiomJ excbance and distribution mechanisms. 7t would
need to be accompanied bv chan)i®s ar»1 imtaativcs within each
eountrv and would recrJirc many of the changes ani initintives to
be specific to an irdivirfual countrv. or areas witliin it.

In sum, the d^vtloDine world offers an opportumtv to put
conservation techmouos to practical use, in the unierstendinr
and solution of at least some of the problems of a larjio port of
the earth, and of its population.

GLOBAL lUEGAL TRADE IN WILDLIFE

G.M. Oa*

IOTTh»UCTION

lUCN. VWP. cms. FOE, TOAFFIC-USA, INSONA, UAN, and many
other global NGOa are endeavourlnfr to aerve the cause of flora,
fauna, and natural ecoayatema. However, our own actions iruat be
concentrated on the nine Indian apeciea listed in CITES because
they lack ptrotectlon in their wild state and have already been
severely depleted by lnter/«tloml trade. These are Fin Vhale
( Blaleaaptera physalus ), Himalayan Musk-deer ( Maschua mosehifems
froschifenis ) , Green Turtle ( Oielonla inydaa ), Hawksbill Turtle
( ^etw^heiya imbricata ) , Olive (tidley Turtle ( Perwochelys ollva-
cea ) . Saltwater Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosusT j Desert Monitor
Lizard ( Varanjs yrlaeus ), Yellow Monitor Lizard ( V. flavescens ),
and Bengal Monitor Lizard ( V. bengalensis ). The reptiles are
highly valued for their shell, skin, meat or oil.

The tip of this iceberg la glinpsed from the seizure from
time to time of the skins of endangered species et Internstioml
airports, and front raids on the shops of furriers.

Among our threatened species is also the Great Indian Rhino-
ceros ( Rhinoceros unlcornla ) , whose born tempts the greedy eyes.
A critical watch has also to be kept on the illegal international
trade in ivory to save both the Aslan ( ElpHos maxi was ) and Afri-
can ( Loxodonta afrieans ) elephants, while the harvests of Bobaets
( Lyac x^ua ) within the US, and the export of their pelts has
recently become a matter of grave concern for wildlife conserva-
tionists, Ultimately, Ywwever, public awareness will be an Incr-
easingly vital factor in controlling the trade in endangered
species (Oia I98O, 1983).

Red Data Books

Red IS Intermtlojwlly accepted colour eymbollzlng danger;
this word has been Incorporated In the title of the series of
loose-leaf books which are compiled and ^blished by the Survival
Service Comraaslon (now Species Survival Corrmlssion ) of the
lUCN, the scientific advisers to the VWP. These publicatlo.is are
the result of services rendered by numerous naturslists and
conservationists the world over, and serve as nwjor sources for
uptodate data on the world's threatened animal and plant species.

These species include those In inrnediate danger of extinc-
tion, those likely to become endangered and, therefore, are
vulnerable and those which arc rare and in danger.

*Dept of Botany, M,S. VniveraiCy, 0 aroda g, India

207

Infonnatio.T is put tojwth^r In th# form of short reports,
the obiective of vhich la to draw universaL attention to the
dans^era facinc these species, and to provide fundanental back-
5troo:*l as a basis for developlnir conservation or rehabilitation
actions.

Illegal Trade in Wildlife

Several airlines have tishtensd rejoilatlona to ensure htarane
conditions of transport aid safe delivery of live ammals, and
sore nations have beeun cooperation, thoudi they have not yet
signed the Convention. Nevertheless, as profits continie to dec-
line at an alarnanjr rate, traffickers find the threat of arrest
worth the risk. In 1969 , la a case in the United States involving
2500 illegal alligator skins valued at nore than one ndllion
dollars, the ring-leader of the smggling operation was fined
only 10,000 dollars and given four months* Inprlsonnent, btit then
he had already made a neat 1^0,000 dollars on sales of the skins
earlier.

Let us view a couple of significant irsteaces of illegal
trade in wildlife, fveellent pictures from space have made us
aware of our planet Earth end we have started learning about the
fragility and vulnerability of the natural systems which sustain
the huisn beinrs. Our only home is under threat as a result of
hiBna.i population evplosion. As a eonseouence, we reckleaaly eon-
aune Irreplaceable nstural resources.

Threats to wild species of plenta have been alartidag in
recent years for we have depended too iruch on them for our suste-
nance and have inliilged in indiscrinnnte trade, ^bitata have
been shattered and we have plundered rare orchids, butterflies
and cacti for collection craze and the sea turtles are slaughter-
ed for their meat and ahells.

Seal pups ani spotted cats ore cormierclally killed for their
skins; rhi.tjs and elephants for their horns and teeth. Such
slaughter apparently Is unnecessary. But man unfortunately uses
his intellige.nce to profit from such kllinga.

BOLE OF CITES

CITES, the Convention oa laternetional Trad* i.n Endangered
Specis cf Wild Pau.'B and Flora, regulates and controls the multi-
nallioa dollar wildlife trade, most of which is Illegal. CITES
controls import/evport on an assessment basis of overall species
rarity and consequent vulnerability due to mounting trade. By
now, there appears to be a ray of hope for more tlian 70 nations
have adopted the CITES regulatioiB. However, to have Its effecti-
veness more worthy, all the trading nations should be sie»tories
to the convention. Seientiata and special ista i.n the field have

203

put 13 to draft a pC T u y l ate lezislatioa aai cvb3

er^er-ce-er* at the stiosal aat asteraatiosal level.

Fate of Tropical forests

Viewi'^ cur tropical fc-ests, seiestists are cf the cpiaios
that s'j'h ii:noue habitats rust have beea fcT-ested for err'e tha3
60 nllioo \ea-s T>s« rsaia a—eas of the »er"ld shelter tropical
fc-eats th» nast A-asoa aarl Costo nve** liaslas aol «aich of the
Seuth— ea«t Asia. Our vairlalisr- has hn^^a reposabile fo^ the des—
troctios o* tropical fo^»ts. Oaly abou* 7% of the earth’s laM
rji-face has th« tro p ical fer^st cover. Aad they •ustala possibly
5C% of all llviM species.

Laic-ieaess of T'otrlcal Forests

The world's rarest a^/rals are to tae fouod oaly la the
t’^oplcal forests. Fopulatioa of ta-a*ns», the attractive prf-stes
frtn South Atb— ica, has beea reduced drastically as a re^'iilt of
lwp*i3* tradiae aad loss of habitat. Teas of huadrerfs of spades
are facior the sa~*» fate io Afrlcaa aM Asiea co’JO’nes. The
forest is a heme fo“ e»s*s closest liviM relstive- th» jtrest
apes. Th* Kouotaia Go^Ua is cosfiaed sow to oae tisv area

of eea*r3l Africa. Famlaais a-e trvlar to epttilf it asi poachers
ha'*aS8 it. The e«tlpcti«3 tbrest eodisues. 6ut the loss of th»
tropical fewest is just ast the loss fer wildlife alose. The lo«s
is to be fo" hemas beioss as well. It is sot a euostios fe** the
deaiteps of the fo-'est, but fo^ all of us who survive oa the
multitude of fo^st products aart a-e st their ne-ey for our day-
to-day existepce. deriv* edible fruits froo m wcm s fo-est
trees. These ere eosau e J lecallv asri ester iato trade globally,
be harvest d a c e ", cola aal tyanl pits froo the wild. Has/ of
otrr fo^eet pl8=*s Have be«3 turoed by Vaa isto plastatioa cro p s
*uch as tea. cocoa baass asl pipeapples, etc. be ^~ow the? o3
a hure scale the world er/e— . Our tie-apis oa the riches of the
forests are strai^t *tode*'s scieoce aod tech:DloTy davel oy est
have resulted la eve- lac— essiar cteread of cHipboa-ri aad plywood.
The beste-a wc-ld is taclaz a heavy toll of the valuable tropical
hardwoods like te»k rahoraav, aal efaoav. &dtl«h. /m*-lcaa,
ScaaiiiBviaa, CAjtch aad Japaaese interests have pos«es«ed axips
nchts cp/er hu-dreds o' so less of tropical fo-ests. The develop-
i 2 « CCTjtsnes rely oa sho-t te-sj eeoaorpe jraias ba«ed oa e*po-t
of ti-be- Ion. Possiblv. the povertv eerses ia their way to tura
dowa lucrative offers.

Apart frcT" tirbe- tropical fc-ests are re-poasible to keep
the wheels of iprJustry aad ce i -n e- ce turai: 5 r with a steady supply
of a-iratic aad -pecialised oils, reslaa, taaaips. ca-pho^ api
jrr*. Aad seme fo-est products like ni''be*’ have te-a lastna-eatal
ia chaanas the ea*i— e course of tursaa developreat. The re d e- 3-

209

day operations theatre is vlrtualy miles away from a forest clear-
ing. But the tropical forest plants are a vital source for tubo-
curariae and atropine without which the latest surgical techsn-
ques will be Inpossible. Our fl#ht aRainst the cancer threat is
based on rinics extracted from forest plants. For new discoveries
we have to be dependent on our forests. Do not forefret that
millions of our native people depend entirely for their basic
necessities on tropical forests.

The Plight of the Tiger

Initially for the ’Operation Tiger' eleven tiger reserves
were founded in the Indian aoh-contlnent. Nepal. Bangladesh,
Bhutan, Indonesia and Ihallaad desired to protect their remaining
tigers and WWF supported their conservation actions. Khen oixr
earlier generations flourished, tlie tiger's habitat extended
right across Asia. Eight sub-speciea of tiger were recorded. Put
the present tiger survival story is aad. The earlier range of
the tiger covered vast tracts of Indian forests. Ibdsy at is met
within the Himalayan foot hills, central and southern Indian
brohea hilly and plateau countryside and Sunderhan forests. In
early 20th century, the tiger's survival status was never doubted
for there existed around *i0,000 animals. However, the yesr 1969
put the Indian tiger count less than 2000, Hie lUCN Red Data Book
has accorded a red sheet for the enia'igered tiger. Ironleally
enough, the tlfwr's skla attracted hunan vision and the greedy
Man accounted for its decline.

WF and several conservation orgardsations convinced women
as to how emberasslng It looks to appesr in public clad in furs
of tigers, leopards, cheetahs, jaguars and ocelots. In the early
cventlcs, the International FUr Thades Federation was persuaded
to give up trading in skins of tigers, the rarest eluded leopards
and the smw leopards. A legal ban was inrposed also in 1970 on
killing - tigers and trading its skin Jn and out of the country.
There are Bjw strong controls in the trading of all striped and
spotted cat skins, a wide range of other animal and plant apecies
and their products. However, poachers and skin traders earn
fantastically n the world markets. Aad tigers are poisoned vrith
coRtroverslBl agricultural pesticides. Thus, the animals itust be
dying in agony for tigers are trapped cruelly and starved and
meet with prerature death to satisfy the vanity of favoured few.

In spite of the scientific management plans put into action,
the situation for the tiger is delicate aad dangerous in Fuierau
(Bihar), Manaa (Asson) , Simlipal (Orissa), Corbett (U.P.), Ran-
thambore (Rajasthan), Kafha (M.P.), Melghat (Maharashtra), Bandl-
pur (Mysore) and Sunderbans (W. Bengal). This is due to the des-
truction of the thorny, dry or iroist deciduous or semi-evergreen
forest cover aad grasslands. The surviving populations ate too
scattered to maintain viable ix-eeding populations for the future.

210

Illegal Trade in Birds of Prey

Global illetral trade has threatened with extinction the
birds of prey like eagles, falcons, ospreys, buzzards, kites,
vultures and condors. To add to their plljEht, the egg collection
and the loss of fecdin* and nestiniE areas fiRure prominently.
Pesticides enter their food chain causlns dairaKiaft effects to
their fertility potential, thinmnz of eftp shells, malformed
younjt and ultimately dashlm them to death.

Cofrmercial Slaujthter of Tlirtles, Crocodiles, ^byseals

Marine turtles face connercial slau^ter for their meat,
shell or oil and their eggs are plundred when whales arrive
ashore for breeding. Vc take life out of crocodiles to turn them
into handbajrs. Baby seals are blud^oeoned to tailor fur-coats for
hunans. Nimerous sea turtles have be^n swirmdnjt in the Indian and
Pacific oceans for more than a hundred mlllios years. They are
found in the tropical Atlantic as veil. The Olive ridleys while
neatinj; have adorned our beaches. But ve have trade inroads on
their marln* habitats. Future survival of the aea turtles la
leopardized. In the Caribbean, turtles are ^harpooned. Modern
pressures on the turtle huntine have caused collapse in their
populations. But vl*h this the intep'al part of the culture of
the Mlskito Indians of coastal Nicaramia is shattered. There does
not exist any bony li'd< between top and bottom shells of sea
turtles. The Vest Africans cut off the belly shell or plastron at
the sides, carve out meat in pieces for stevins or brollimt.
Turtles end up in pots. FVople of Micronesisn islands remove
their intestines throujdi incision near the tall, else the entire
anltral is roasted over fire. The efrxs of the p'cxjp-nestin;; Clive
Ridley turtles are harvested so intensively and extensively that
hardly a sinsle nest survives. The Carib Indians in Surinam are
en*a]i^ in egg collection close to the ocean. Turtle eggs have
flourishlnjc markets in tropical countries for their supposed
a^^irodlsiac values and fetch money more handsomely than the hen’s
e7Rs. Prolonged boiling does not harden the white of the efHrs.
The flexible shell is tore apart and the eggs are eaten raw with
spices lendinjr a touch of taste and flavmir. Hawksbill is one of
the most endanpered species of sea turtles today for its conmer-
cial demand of 'tortoise shell* and the entire stuffed duvenilcs
enter illepally the US and Japanese markets. In the absence of
the haidtshiJJr frees hsTome the terfete ef J^ouvanir
manufacturers who capture them before they reproduce and are done
to death to cater tothe needs of thoufditless tourism. Sea turtles
such as these Olive Ridleys na loncer be molested by ffan on their
rlphtful remote beaches. If Man becomes a casual visitor to their
fantastic abodes, future jeenerationa shall be lucky to share Uie
wonderful world for reciprocal benefits.

211

Demand of Rhino Horn

The world's five species of rhino In Africa, India, Java and
S«Tiatra are in jcrave daneer of extinction by poachers, for they
take a heavy toll to flood the Par East places with rhlm honrs
to satisfy the aphrodisiac ethics, proved scientifically moat
untrue. Rhino horns reach Yemen to turn into decorative dajtjrer
hanlLes. The ona-horned rhinoceros earlier ranjred frcui the Indus
valley to northern Burma. Their present home is in Brahnaputra
valley in Assam, two small reserves in West Beneal and in the
Chltwan Valley in Nepal teral. They en.ioy lejcal protection for
their conservation in Assam’s Kar.iranea National Park and in
Nepal's Royal Chitwan National Park. The preat one-horned rhino
weifdiins 2 tons is 6 feet shoulder hieh and 12 feet in lensth.
Its thick studded skin folds have a close parallel to loints in
mediaeval armoury. The rhino horn is tipto 2 feet lonjr jrrowine
from the skin of the .mse. Poachlne which aided In the decline of
rhiiBS has been reduced In recent years. But Rhino viewing in the
Kaziranpa is a pood foreiyn exchaTRC earner throudi planned
toin'ism.

Illeital Trade in Ivory

Ivory has lucrative illegal trade. bVF has extended its
support to curb poachine activities. Earlier, the elephant
existed from the Tijeris and Euphrates in the west through Asia
south of Himalayas to Chins in the east. Pakistan and cuuntriea
to her west hove lost entirely the elet^ant. This m»ans, it is
now restricted to hilly and mountainous reeions where the modera
Kan desires to initiate development activities and alienate his
life from the elephant. It is shocklnx to note the exclusion of
the elephant from the fertile accessible floodplains of jnant
rivers such as the Indus, Ganyes. Jrrawadv, Mekong and Yanytse
Kiany. Now these very rejraons sustain some of the heavict htfnan
population pressures in the world, where the early huran civili-
zations established a close relationship with the elephant. This
is reflected in our relmon, culture, and archltcture. But the
latest situation is that how many of us have seen an elephant in
the wild’’ Their Mnbera in the wild have declined drastically.
^\e{inan't tusKs are instmnental m 'havin* with us heautiful ivory
artistic works. African elephants have been poached for tusks
for the Aslan ivory trade. The ivtjry trade needs a watch for the
survival of the African and Asian elephants. But the habitat
destruction poses one of the greatest threats to the suj-vivlnz
Asian elephant populations. The advancement of technolojry to take
care in settling Jiunan population is very evident. With the loss
of larye tracts, the elephants are deprived fo of their preferred
food plants. Consequently, they invade crop lands airi Kan views
them as pests. We are facing acute problems of feeding millions

212

of our huTjrry people. People eennst tolerate seasonal nrip-atlnjr
ele{^nts in search of food outside the national parka. ‘The
onjtnal wooded home of the elephants tn N.W. India »t far frwn
the Indus river wears a sefrd-desertlc look. Cattle grazing pres-
sures ml fuel demand have taken a heavy toll of the fctrests. “The
area neither shelters elephants nor fairly sustains hunan beinjrs.
When we have the iwaaion by elephants in our crop plantations,
it is an indicator of the degradation of our forests.

Other Threatened UmQue Wildlife

Let us have a look at the sorry state of affairs with other
wildlife The baby gibbons arc captured for the pet trade after
shooting their mothers. Beautiful butterflies are caujdit and
killed to be framed as souvenirs for money. CcsTTT«rcial slaughter
of our umoue wildlife still continues. Instead we should derive
pleasure from luture by observing <«r wildlife In their homes.
National Parks Ttaurism can be a potential earner of the nuch
needed foreign exchange. The Raja &n»oke Birdwing, the black and
green butterfly in the Malaysian forest is threatened as a result
of overeollection. Wenild It nst be disgraceful for us to lose
such beautiful insects'*

We should not forget that our dependence Is based on the
natural systems and our very survival and prosperity shall be
possible in our harmonlus dealings with Saturt. Ihls educative
message has to reach our younger generations to have a feel of
belonging to our planet Garth. We have only one home to dwell in
and it is cur obligation to preserve it for our own well-being.

Dr. J.R. Vallentyne, one of the crusaders for the World
Csrtpalgn for the Biosphere, and INSCNA have launched already a
crusade to 'Save Our Biosphere* 'Conserve 'Today, Save Tbrorrow'
is our slogan for the well-being of the Earth and its dwellers
(Ora ld 83 ).

REFERENCES

TUCN, 1966, 1972 Survival Service Ccondssion Red Bata Books on

Endangered Marmals, Birds, Angihibians, and Reptiles. lUCN,
Merges anl Gland, Switzerland loose-leaf.

Oza, G M 1980 Editorial- Saving the Endangered Species throu^
CITES. Enviromiental Awareness J < 3 ) 53 - 55 »

Oza, G.M 1983. An Indian view of Man and Nature. Enviroanental
Conservation 10 ( 4 ) 331 - 35 .

HEVELOPJE/a E/(VIROV?©frAL STRATEGIES

C.X- >&5hra*

TOSS.T *CinEL <y DEVtIX»»®.T

TT>e t«-5 t>VBloEr^St Is so rctfi is us- that 1 an nat SUKW-
»»d to tell the «Jeri3lte»3 of this «*3rri. Kvs-y oae be It a
so-iety, reeiaa state o*- aatioa Is trylar hard to develicjp l.e..
the type of <Weloc»-e=* achieved by the »o-eaJled d<»v«»lopod
countries Ve are tryla* to icdtate tb- developed co'ja*ri<»s. la
this aapdratloa of wrm la awrie'/la? the vestera nad-ls of d“ve-
loo-r» 2 t e}-»ra'*te” 2 ed by weeseive use of raterlals asi rB-hiaes
we have beea Ir yo ^ t lag all so*^s of wcste-a techslosy* The
ecoxrasts Iwve Icveated th- coacept o*" O'? (cr- asce—talrd"^ the
stayes of develosneat- The hither the of a o^jatry or a
Boelety, wore a^/aaced It is supposed to be. J fe*l tJvit ywi all
are aware of the fact that fo** achievlat the hiiJir 07 we are
rsoulred to eoastr^ asJ fr-odoce no-e nt-eriaJs aid y»rvieea pe"
capita. That is tb* 07 Is directly lld-ed with th* rat* of co*-
eirtrtioa of trir resoirees.

The fact with retard to <2? la that It la a rather erro^eaus
coaeept la estlretlae the 4fevelo7valal statua of the evxatry
becaus* fro- a ylvea hiafier <3S7 we cataot tudre r»ay thlszs for
e*arpl«. GP7 does art iadleat* the status of health of the ro?w-
latioa <w the preseat position of the rxistissr reso’jraes a:»l al»o
it does 33t tell th- future status of th» C(wa*ry.

A 3-1 L-j’ of eeo3y“ie rodels of develo v est hav- bees wcHced
csxt \rf vsrlo’os s^xtoIs. I will ost ro ioto the d-tails of these
rodels. Eut i^iat I could rather fru^ the type of weete-a rodel
belTz aspired aad followed trv venous cwJatrles is bated ea the
excessive use of soa-reaewaole resOTurees whd^ is characte-ised
by the projtwtloa of wastes *>* 116 ** eaavt b“ rc“vc2ed.

•ow 1 woald like to briefly recTloa abvut the ewiroTnes*
aad the positloa azil role of nea la the ea/lro3^3tal syster.

EK’/IPCfJCST

There are may deflsitloas of "euT^rwrert". Mishra (1973)
coasldera euvjroa-wjt sa a ctrxoslte tern for the coadltiow la
a^ich o-faalsn lives- It laclorfee both Motic aad abiotic subs-
taaees, eaeryy aad forces e.y. te-cerature. litht, water, air,
soil aad other orjtaiB-s. Th- eawiroa^a* Is divisible lato oute"

*Toranfie Seian^a LaboTatory, S P. OfiJc*, Peva. Inilja

2t4

en^dronneat exterml to the body and internal eavdrouneat as the
conditions within the body. The other definition (Siukla 1985)
mentions that "Enyironnent is the totality of all social, biolo>
eical and physical or chemical factors, individjally as well as
collectively that contuse the natxiral and (nan-eade surTouadinss”.

Man is a part of environnental system, not away fr«n the
system. So far man has been iaterferinjt with the envii uniient in
order to achieve the ao-called development of ecoavrdata. The
need of the hour is to evolve an environrental strategy: we
should consider all aspects of the environrental system- structu-
ral, functional and evolutionary.

In order to operate any system there are certain basic
principles- the various components by way of feedback mechanisms
should remain in homeostasis with reeard to material cycle and
enerity flow.

About Biome

Misra (1983) observed the importance of organisms in build-
injf our life support system has already been emchasised. Our
((lobal heritage, the biosphere holds with us approximately 1640.9
X 10* tons of (dry) chytomnass (Leith and Whitaker 1975) and 2.0
X 10^ tons of zoorass (Whittaker and Likens 1973) besides 0.05 x
10^ tons of domestic amrals. Ihe total nunber of known aspeles
llvi.nK with us is approx. 5 lacs of plants and 10 lacs of aamala
ineludiniC microbes (Misra 1d8l). It is estimated that about 9
nallioQ species of plants and ammals became extinct riurine evo-
lution but the sinultaneous emercenee of more species vhieh are
extent witn us has maintained this hipher fisure duriat the holo-
cene period. However, the rate of extinction of plant and amral
species recently accelerated on account of industrial activities.
About 10!( of the plant species are disappearing each decade on
account of destruction, waste and misuse of the leeetatioa, and
thousands of species are threatened by early extinctlo.n.

Since man is an Intexral part of the environnental aystem,
his existence also depe.nds on the existence of all the species of
fauna and flora.

ENVTRONMEWTAL n?0Bt£MS AND HUMAN EXISTCNCE

In his book "Statistical aad Mathematical Aspects of fbllu-
tioa Problems" . Pratt ( 197A) describes that most of the current
activity la the field of enyirosncntal co.ntrol is nation! in
character. Efforts to deal with man's irtpact on the enyironrent
and the repercussions on a world-wide scale or uneven and uncoor-
dinated concern with these problems seefns to depend on population
density, deeree of industrialization, eoasimption of products by
urban societies, intensity of agriculture, and livinc standards,
public education and environnental awareness. Aecordinp to him

"ETrtro'TTie'Jtal variables” are

A. Ohyaical aad chemical data from the atTOsphere pertiieit to
elimate-chaipe pote^tt»l ,

B. physical aid chemical data frwi air, vrater. soils STd biota
pertiaeat to hunan health aid welfare

1 . physical, chemtial a’ri biological data reflect! -is the state
of biansT health,

li. baoloeical data reflectiie the perforraaiee of hiolojacal
system.

AccordlJ^c to him '’ETViroTne.’JtaJ problems” are

i. potc’itiallv adverse climatic chance result! •« from birraT
activities,

li. ooteatiallv artvaerse cha'jses n biota aod man from conta-
mnatioa hv toine substances ncluriny radionuclides,
ill, potentially adverse chances m bioloeical proAictivity
caused by improper landusc (reduced soil fertility, ^oil
erosiQo. extensioa of and ioa»s, etc,).

' '

heieleet of E’Tviro'mental Prohlema

In his article "BTopal Gas traeedv Has it opea^ our eyes'*'*
Rathore <1^3) describes the callous indefcreace toVeporta o9
pollution dancer did nst surtinsc me at all. I have been rtrawine
attention to many en/irosnentally dancerous situation obtainiv
aa this state. The enviro*tnental situation at Sincrruli in rela-
tion to the proposed Santay Naear Tbwnship, which would b lite-
rally sandwiched btween the irost potent environnenal polluters,
coal-mines and siioer-thertml power stations, is one o'* thepi.^
Amlai Paper Factory effluent discharced in Sene river is another
such exanple. Durinjr summers this factorv diverts the entire
river throu^ itself to meet its water needs wl»at flows dewn is
ait Sane but a river of pure effluents, nie situation is alarminc
because of a dam heinp constmeted downstream which will perhaps
collect all this and distribute it as irricational water to far-
off places. The entire area between Haihar aoi Kntni is one big
pas chertber. We have created Department of Erviruhnent, Enviroa-
mcntal PJanam and Coordination Orramsations, Hallutinn Prevei>-
tioa Boards and passed Enrtromental ftjlicies, Water and Air
/Arftr a/rrcft- cr-tfy creafe 6A« ifroaion of an cnvironrien-
tallv responsible achamstration The system, by and larre, con-
times to remain insensitive ami pays only lip service throuch
Countless seminars and workshops ani waits - «bould we saw for
such traeedies to occur. Bhopal Gas traftedy is the tip of an
icebepff. Rsyiroarental disaster is much rrore enarwous and the
issues are much more jn'ave.

Further Rathore (1^85) has pointed out that the situation is
all the more disjcustins because Hadliya Pradesh was efremnj!: as a

216

leader In the area of enviromeit. Earlier, Ita present political
leadership exhibited a jrreat sensitivity towards envirofmental
problems, the state passed Its own erwlroTiental policy. It has
created Its own department of housinje and environment. Tt has its
own pollution prevention Board. It has created a'sather orjia/iisa-
tion remed envira'inental plannln)^ and coordination oramsation or
EPCO. Are they lust frills and show pieces'* About EPCO, he says,
this body is still in search of Its identity and role visualized
as to work as the most potent and apex envlroimental orgran of
the state, this orzanlsation is in shantiles and is nu'Bjred by
fly-by-nijdit experts.

Consequently, further he points out that the State's Rillu-
tlon IVeventlon Board presents another dismal picture. It has a
facade of poorly equipped laboratories which are totally incompe-
tent to monitQr air and water pollution Integrally and effective-
ly, The Board management follows the corrupt practices of perio-
dic inspection Instead of round the year monitorioK at key
points Pollution is oit merely a chemical or environmental enjrt-
neerine problem. It Is a predominantly ecolojncal problem and its
inteKral vision includes the futuristic proleetions la terms of
backlashes and complications due to food-chain networks.

It IS clear that all bodies related to en^droancntal aspects
must have only envirofmental experts, not noiv.e'viro mental dls-
eiplino eanlidatos.

Future Model of Development Based on
Eavironnental 'Ihinkine

Ihe problems nated above require irore concerned and concer-
ted efforts in order to ensure that we hand over a comparatively
better envirorwent to future eencratlons. Some suKcestlons are
made below to this end .

Ennvirofmental education nust be irrparted to all persons.
Besides other eavironnental activities it is necessary to imple-
ment developmental model based on renewable resources and recycl-
laz of wastes. To achieve this 1 soepest a provision be made for
the followim officials to look after environnental matters

1. Block level - Senior Technical Assistant (for information and

sample collection).

2. Tehsil level - Assistant Environnental Officer

3. District level- Environneirtal Officer or Deputy Director of

Environnent (for work coordination).

k, Divisio’Ml Envirofmental Officer or Joint Director Environ-
ment. The office must have a well equipped laboratory.

5. State capitals-

Joint Director of Environnent (Industries and Mima?)

Joint Director of Environment (Water Bodies)

Joint Director of Environnent (Ajrri culture and Soil)

Joint Director of Environnent (Eaerjty)

'i^7

Joint Director of Ewiromieit (Forest and Wildlife).

O’* Director of E’s/irorront

Experts from different etwirowsital fields may also be
iwolved at each level.

The work of these set-ups inll Include

- Nonitori”5sr aid nw’Ofcmont of the resources.

- To assess the patters of cTvlro'Woital utilization for jrovern-
ment and public life.

- To assess the Interaction bet*»een rich and poor people for
envlroinental utilization.

- To assess the EnviroTwntal Impact Assessmant o'" local rezio-
nal and state level.

- To assess the effect of ell new tsnjerarmes on cnvlroniient.

- Control of envlromcBtal activities related to all departments,
either gpvcrnncntal and non-aovernnental .

- To cheek autl-conscrvatlonal activities.

National policy of development as an intesrated envlronre^-
tal stratery based on renewable resources is essential. An InteA*
rated stratcey for ludicious envlronrontal utilization In each
enviromeatal system will help incorrect rievelecmont.

RtrERENCES

Leith, H. and R.N. Whittake- <Cds). IR75. Primary Productivity of
the Biosphere. Spri neer Verlan. Berlin. •

Mishra, Chandra Kant. 1078. Enviromental Education. Poryawaron
1 1^-15.

Misra, F. 1^1. Development syrilrone awl vceotatlon Dull. Nat.
Inst, Ecol. 5 11-21.

Mists. P. 1983, Feoloicv and Kso. p, J3-23, in R.S. Arbasht and
B.D. Trlpothi (Eds.) River Ecoloey and Iltrmn Health. IVoc.
NECA. DHU, Veramsi, Iislia.

wlnbj V, ^971*. Stjriift}-CT2 aoC .Vtri’.’KiroWjjj*
ftjllutlon Problems. Marcel Dekker, Now York.

Rathore, J.S. 1935. Bhopal Gaa Trazedy Has It opened put eyes?

Oikos, India Vol. 11 (1-2) 1 7.

^ukla, R.N. 1*58?. Role of Youth/Comnon cltlcen in enviroirnontal
conservation. Oikos, India Vol 17 6-13.

Whittaker, F.H. and G.E. Likens. 1973. Hsnan Ecoloay 1 359-369.

NEED FOR TRAINING AND EXTENSION CENTRES/ INSTITUTES
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AT STATE LEVELS ns

R.C. Ihs* and B.K.

T^^ ro IS Tou a »flo> il »■ kcII as local coTCt-rn about tlic
deteriorati O'lalitv of rT^riro’ntit a*»J rapid tlenl^’tioi of latu-
ral rosoiirc*»s Tlio od for tiviroisiital i-illiitim coitro! a>l
balaiccd iis** of resoiircta la t>t caifi** I to iiliistrial comtrifs
aloi" Tlio (Colovical iRi|>aCts of irritfiticii schotrs lisa of
fertilisers aTrt oestieide** «I* for* stilioi follow' ! hv soil ero-

aioT aro felt evpr^irfiero » *i rural aro-is aal tijov affect th<

backward section of tb'‘ 'oelotv tti" frost. Unjs tli«re is an mere-
asi oe nee'l toHav to ffOTornto awarov*®* about rjollution control
ecoloeical fnaTasemmt forest a*»l soil Conservation wild life
preservation recycling of minictpal a^r! jvlu'Trial wnatea etc
amongst teachers eneirrors scientists p)an>rs ii'rl administra-
tors to broaden ail intensify tlieir exj>erti«e to nviTire anti

solve otiroifental problems. Tliort is al«o eounl nfctssiti to

generate etriroTTwital consciousness anoncst tb* rural masses ^•'1
the illiterate ani th* fioortr s'Ction of the «ocietN,

In view of trie above ol>tecti\'« It IS proL>oS“d tjiat Centres
of Environnontal Studies Tminme a->i Fstension he establishel
at state levels as well as it tli* nntionnl level.

Arb« AST> OaiFCTI\F« OF THr CFVTUFS
Tlie main obieetives of the centres will be a« follows

1 . To advise the Goverirent a**! its arencies on environnentol
issues of public interest ani to assist them in tVie formula-
tion a’ri impletT»»ntation of state environrental policies ani
conservation strategies.

11. To liaso and offer consultancv services to inthistries a-»l
other ajeencies on environnental matters.

111. To ifppart recular avt fulltime education on envlronriGntal
science by runnine postera'liiate courses on the subiect.

IV. To impart nonfonral and continutne education on various
aspects of enviroTTient to covernnent officers plnnnt.rs tea-
chers scientists an! en*iners tliroueti sliort-ttrm traimne
pmeranmes, ant w<icV-«l. 'sps-*

V. To conhjct research on environnental problimis b\ itself and
those sponsored by the industries and other acencies.

VI. To •nonitor ani sponsor researcli uroTramnes relate'l to envi —
ronrontal studies on behalf of ttre Governnent.

•Dept of Chemistry, University college of Engineering,

BOTla, Sambalpvr, India

••Dept of Zoology C.H. College, Saabalpur, India

220

Re^eirclt Coasulta'KV airt Lnkdee with ProfessioTal World

Research will be ai imporfiit part of the distlictlve acade-
mic activity of tlie ceitre*i. i iterdlsclpH tiirv research will be
cTCoiiraeod. Hie participatioi of etirJeits, faculty, i'>du"tries
rtnl otiicr letTcies will erBiiro team effort towards problenw
solvne activities misaioT-orieitcd aid TatioTally-relevant
reseircli.

Tlie Turrber of research stiiflents (M. Fhll., Ph.O. aid post-
doctoral! to be idmittort will be restricted rtepeidlT,e upoT the
Tumb^r of tdeitifiel problems aid colXaboratiois with fellowships
offered bv various aeeicles aid orffailsatiois,

Fh,n proarirrmes may operate withii the campus or outside ll
iidustri or otb^r ©Tvlroiricit affected area. However, some
theory m>i prietical courses will be offered at the ceitre as
pre-remiisi te for research.

Th« thrust arc is of research nviy be Ideitlflad from time to
tlTr»». Tiitnllv they may be <al study of air aid watrer quality
It litlustrial airl high pov«»latioi deisity locations, (b) defores-
tatioi iifi its iiflueice oi climate and soil, (c) soil erosion
study srounl maior <l<’forested anti hvdro-proleet areas, (d) alter-
nate elorrv isourers for rural population aifl (o) study of eco-
conscioTtsness in ninl an! tribal areas etc.

Ihe centres will also offer consultancy services to various
industries (In RAD work an! pollution control), aeeneles and
the Govenrwnt in en/iromental matters.

KeeptK linkice with professions) bodies, they will have
collaborative education/rescarch/trai ni ne courses throughout the
state {for rotfioml centres) or the country (for national level
centre) Research grants offered by the Governrent to scientific
personnel outside the centres can be routed through them for
effective momtorne and control.

Since most of the research will be sponsored by industries
and other agencies tt»e financial burden for this will mt be
heavy.

Generation of Eivironnrntal Consciousness
Amongst th** Masses

Generation of enviromentat conscious ness amongst the masses
will be an important activity of the centres. It „an be done in
various wavs e.g ,

1. bv publishing popular articles in -WHSpapers, periodicals,
booklets propaganda lenflets etc. on environnent,
ll bv prcuroting or sponsonne such literature bv persons not
belongiTg to the centre,

ill. by promoting folk literature and other folk activities on
tlie subiect through awartl of grants and other incentives.

IV. by awarding persons for slogans drawings, cartoons etc..

221

V bv awardne persoia a'>'»ially for useful activity towards ei-
vl^oT1p^ta^ protcctioa

VI. by ppomotinc and aidnc aature lovars* clubs n schools,
collc«»’S etc. ,

vii. bv oreuarl le fiJ/n strips oi eTvoroTTX'it

viii. bv orffaiisinc short-term orie'Jtatioe a-ti motivatioi Courses
for vwJths thro'ieh eovcrttwital & ■wj-«overT(wstal oreansi-
tioTS like f^ehru Yuvak Keitlraa N.S.S. imts of eiJucatioul
iTstltutlois Rotary Clubs etc.

Tlte Departirwat of kT/iromeital Exteasim will orsaTiso th»
above activities with the help of the other drDartiw»its of the

PESTICIDE PDISONItiS AND TREATMENT

M. Ka*©!*

reSITCIOE P0I«O*.TNG

PesticT I® t^Jiso'n-w is as ewrreicv. Hsxe. it should bs
reco(r3i?«d •■arlv a-ri first aid oroce<lure asf defiaitive trestm***!!
should he nvea u r om tlv aad properlv

The jfnportasee of earlv recos'Jitios of this illaess caaiot
be overewnhasjied siace Tov-recoentlos of mild svnptoms caa e-si
up 13 disastrous severe maaifestatioas resultiae la death*

first Bid procedure »«tramstered as soos as the lHaess is
reeojrsized irev spell out tWr bir differesee betwea saviae or
losiar th® patieat.

*3e*B BTl SNinpte« of Poisosi-w

- Headach- - De«t> a'rt fast breathihr

Naus®a - Fast b»at»*>c of heart

Gastne distress - Fever

- RestlBssaess - Ashaa color

Hot fr*li3tf - Colloose

- Flushed skn - Cw

- Sw«*atnc

««v»r« poisoaiTt Mstjaltv ruhs a rapid course. Ohe usuallv
dies or is alnost w »11 *nithi"j 2*» to *•& hours.

RecoeutJoT of T^sticid® Poisoai'w

Recoeaitioa or arriviae at a correct diss'eisis of pesticide
poiso'aTK cal be achieveil rrv tJ»e followior

1. Climcal diaraosis bas“d oa a history of pesticide
eiwjsure a*»t ilw appearaace of is:a a;rl s'r'Ptona cofipatible with
tiffe do«e relstioTship.

2. Laboratorv coafirTtetioa e r. cJioJnesterase deterrmsa-
tio3 pesticide a Tri/or netabolite studies n the blood aai ume
a*H latact i>®sticid“ studies.

PBSticid“S beloisias to a diesucal eroupiic cause sinnlar
sisas aart sveptoma wmeb narv be milfl rnaderate or severe dep«*ad—
iM upol the pesticide aid the amouat absorb*^!. Haviic sore of
the sieis aid SVeotcFro do>3 T,jt alwavs r«“a3 that there as poisoi-
ipff. Othar kiads of sickiess may cause similar raaifeatatioss.
Headache aad feeliae of b®»s* for exasple troy sieiol the

•pept of A1 Afhar Oniaersxtv- Cairo. E9V»t

223

start of traTv ki-ris of ill'Jtfss. It is the patten of th** maufts-
tatio'B that tnakft^ it possible to tell o*** kisri of sickTess from
aiother.

■niree levels of Eicuosure to Pesticides

Ffe'^ticidc poi so*)! •« mas occur at three levels of oxrxssore

1. Acute exposure - acute poismne result! isr it systemic
poisoTiTj local iTiurx or coatnnotl s\«fe>nic ani local
pojsoTiTc followiT* acciHcnCal or iTtcitioTil snsle
acute exposure (®«ncT«lel.

2. CliroTic hicli exposure - e'tla-wt'r^ cxpos«»f1 nrtividuals to
loTC term a<Kr»rse «»ffocts or chroTic toxicits of pcsti-
Ciries such as it ttic occupatioTallv evp<?s**fl workers,

1. Qirxj-uc low expo*«ur»"/' iTCirteTftl exptisicre of tli“

r»)Mic due mosH\ to r>e«tiri le r^Tj !»rx fctnr'i miv i TThiro
'hreetl^ or iThrectK eo**titions favoursMe for d^voleo-
mcTt of caTr"r aul oth“r dise>«'*«.

cu««TPTCtiiow 01 pe‘«frrcirF«

A, Pused PI l^vel of Haranl

ViHO elaseifieatioT of pextiet*!"® bx ha?ard«

Kxtremelj

L0‘!0

Hictih

mgAg

harardous

hat •r«!oi'

« ltt7irdi>u«

hstardpus

Crnl

Solids

'••0

50- <>00

500

Liouiils

20-500

200-2000

2000

Dermal *

Solids

lO- JOO

100- 1000

1000

Liquids

'jO

'lO-'fOO

^-‘lOOO

kreo

R iTsecTi eirtn ClTssification

I. AccordiTC to the k.T\ TImjx Aff*»ct I'x^rcts

1. '^torrvjch - toxic oiioTtities are ncc^t''d b/ the iTo^ct.

2. CoTtact - kills irpoT coiract with ai exter-nl r^rtioT

of the bodv.

3. ’^X’stemic - callable of hei •» ib«!orb»‘»l iTto th** plmt

sx-tem th*^ innk** ulnt ixirls i Ts^cttcidal .

A. Otliers (replcllcTt fw^mr etc 1

224

TI. AccorHaie to ai«»nilcal Nature

1. OreaTociiloriTes

2. OrM'tor^osphatea

3 Carbamates

4 Pvretliroula

5 P%oIaTxcal /microMrtl

6 PotaTicals

7. Others (repellent furmeant)

C Herbicide Classification
1 Formulation

2 . 'siloetivitv aolectivo or io*i-s«l«»ciive.

3. Mtxle of action contact translocated or systemic.

4 Time of applieatton prcplant, pre-omerjrence or

pos t -emer ere nee .

*5 Qienneal Nature

- Rienixy comptnintls (2 4-0)

- Substitute'! amines (Me«cli<*ts)

- Thiocarbarretes (Eptam)

- Substituted urea (dturan)

- nipyridilllums (paroount)

- Triazinen (Atrazno)

- 0tV«"rs

D. Rwlentd cid««

a. Anticoaculant- ilnbits prothromhi n an) ciu'es canillarv
dnmae®. ^Nwotoms include bleeJinr fron> the nose, cums
eastro-i ntesti Ml and uriMr\ tracts hemotpaa anorrda.
b Acute rwlenticide- f>ro<!uces varied acute manifestations
dopendinc nixin the active i mrrcdients.

F. Bip\Tidv\s (pa'*dq(iat and diouat)- province proliferative clian-
ces in a variety of tissues.

Skin exposure- irritation «!iscoloration an! irreeularitv of
finder nails.

Eve ex^wsure- comunctivltis an! keratitis.

Inhalation- irritation of nose and throat, sometimes with
nose bleed! ns.

Oral Insestion- oral , substerMl and abdowiMl pain vomitl ns
and diarrhoea nuscle aclans olisuria laundice cwish
dysnea tachypnea pulmonary e lema.

Tlie luns complications usually prosress to death.

F. Miscellaneous pesticides (pesticides of plant orisin, biolosi-
cals funeicides etc.)- Produce varied manifestations «i'’pend-
ins upon the composition of the fommlation.

Generally these pesticides have low order toxicity.

226

''(«»clvi3icsl sturulatio'* of the fitarvTit ((itrciac') caa rerove
S0\ of storaach coateat*. Tpecae sx-run caa reatjve W-lOW of
stCTrtseh eoateat* The cloae is lO-lS ml for childrea aat 20-

2a ml for adiilts A «:ecoai «fo«e nvii he rii-ea if e'-t-sis does

ant oeeur withia la 30i«ia Tpecac is cardiotoxic aal rrore
thaa two do«es showlrt aot be a'kriaistered Fluid extract of
Ipecac is about 1-4 tiines mere eoaceatrated thaa the «vnjji
beace it« use rust be avoided.

1 2 r»astric la\*ace caa remove 75^ of «tc«aEich coateats. This
Will be cloae la the dine or Iwspital.

Tlw use of salt (SaCll as aa ea«*t\c in pol«oaaes shcaild
be disccsiraerd because serious salt poisoaipc ton occur from
deliberate laeestioa la ti-BUCcessful attenuts to laduce
NTo-itiae

2 lirrat th" Cast ro-i atestml Absorptioa

2 1 ActiN’ated charcoal- this is aa odorless, tasteless fiae
blaeV powder the resulue frtm riestmctiw distillatioa
of N’arious orcanc imtcnal* e.c. wood rulp, suitabK
treated! to lacroase its absorptive powler. Vhea actnai-
«ter“d la aa a l*Kjuate dose this absorbeat i^lbits
ea*troi3tcsti*Hl abs»»rrtioa of abroad speetnri of
ch*sTacal coroouarts. Us do*e is 50 e ta t/^i rlass of
water as a slurrv. thea I'stuee voratiae. This should be
a knmstere'l oreferabls withia >0 miautes after iaees-
tioa of the rotsoa

2 2. Household remehes if actix-ated charcoal is a>t ax'ail-
able laclude

a P<»afea etc white for all tirpes of poisoas {upto 8
eccs for a lults aad errs for chilrtrea)
b Milk for aCid or alkaliae pesticides (t to 2 elasses
for victims uadcr 5 vears a^i 2 to ^ classes for those
o\-er 5 >‘ears)

II. For I'lialed ftjison

If poi«oaiat IS b> itialatioa re'xn'e the patieat frem the
area of exposure a3l reruve all coatamiaated clothiae. Alnust all
toxic pesticides caa be absorbed nt oalv Irv oral latake but also
b\ i*ia1atioa aii throueh the iatact skis. Clothiae serves as
reservoir for dermal absorptioa aad i*iiaIatiDa of pesticides.
Remove waterials oa the skip tr, riPsizs with eopioas atroiiats of
rua.ai3c water Soapiae followed bv copious riasiae will remerve a
ereater aaouat of poisoa Never applv oil oa the coatana^ted
skia siace this rai facilitate or laereeae poisoa ab s orption.
Keep the patient ctmifortable by eoveriac with a loose cotton
bla'ket

227

ITT. Far Ev» Co3ta-a*Btlos

It cas» of e>e coste-matjoi, flt^ the eye iri-r>diMt«Iy trith
rusuM vatpr fcr- several riiuiesm Because of paia «"ri spas-i,
a«sist the vacti™ bv hoMiac his eve-lids opes ani allow featle
str»ati of tap water to irrlcate all the •urfaces, la atteaJias to
th<» victin avoid bei pz CQata~i •»te'i with the poisoa vhlle treat-
i PS hin

B -rt«*TaP:e of EreathiP*

lo as»we free aal patleat airway. ohSB've the follcTwlpr
reasures s-oues^iallv

1. ftjsitjoa th- patieat op hia aide (If pojsoa has beea
swallowed tura hin tcTward tl>e left side to y-eveat further
trap-«it of attmaeh eoatesrt laio the doortear' where sreater
ahsorptioa eaa oeeur) with the head ewtepded aad lo<er thaa
tb<* st u ' w e li level by T5 to JO*. HsfptaiP this posftfoai^le
patleat la n transit.

2. Ve-mfe aav aecretioa from the nouth aal throat bv careful
auetioPxas. Do lat attest to do rwuth to nwJth re»uaelta-
tloa, e^pectallv If poi«oa has he»p i*haled er evatlowed.

J. la aa upcoascioua patleat* rotce sure that the topcue is
h*li1 rorvarri by laaertlar a r^ill hard bloat obn«<t (bade of
spoop or topeu* depresso*, p'-eferably ap erophanaeeal air-
wsv tube) betwe“P the toPtu^ apd palate.

If facilities are available, do aa eadotrach»al i*'*ubatioa
BTrt atW plater oxvrtP.

Siser pesticide poisoaipt remnres ho»pita] care, the victiia
should b“ brwirht imm.diatelv to a hospital eouipp^ to napape
polsoPlas cases.

Avnncrres

Aatidotes are substapces w*iich ro-ove or ir*eveat th“ absorj^
tioa of a poisoa. chap?* its tovlc p r op erties or counteract its
rhvsioloclc effects- rifferept tj-pes of astidotes are

1. Veehasical- re-oves a poisoa or prevcpts its absorptlna p.r.
Eresis. icaatric lavar-, surface wasSiipz. cathartics, activated
charcoal.

2. Ovrical- acts che^cally to fom a no.p-tcnrtc or less tende
etTPJoupd by fo — -ipc aa ipsoluble product or by cnddatloa.

3 - Fhvsiolotie- actioa ia opposite to that of th- poisoa, e.p.
atropip" for or fa pjpho -pha tea .

Hwrmacoloric- hithlv -peciflc svsten aptlriotes wpieh are
efficient iP blocklpc the actlops or effects of poi«oa, e.t,
pralid 2 nrlr»» for orfap&t+Kj»ph«tes.

226

Kinds of antidotes for pesticide poisoning

Antidote

Poison Remarks

1. Activated charcoal
Dose Child- 10-20
ft in 100 ml water,
orallv Adult- 30
to 50 jr in 150 ml
water, orallv.

2. Atropine sulfate
Dose 0 015-0 05
mcAc.

Effective for all
poisons except
cyanide, alcohol
and iron.

Orca mphospha te
carbamate.

Child- 1 me i.v.

Adult 2-3 mj? i.v.

Repeat everv 5-15
minutes until mus.
effects disappear,
increasne intervals

3a. Pralidoxin* chloride Orjranophosphate
1 in 20 ml sterile
water i.v. after t hr
symptoms improve may
be repeated for total
dose of 300 m«A« in
48 hrs.

No reaction except
staininc

Atropinizatlon is
achieved If the
followl njr are
present pupil 4fmi,
heart rate 120-l40
per min . drvness
of mucous membranes

Contraindicated in
carbamate poisoninc

b. Obidoxine

Dose 3-6 mt/kg i.v.

c. Diacetylamonxirrei
Pose 1-2 c I.v.

4. Vitamin K1 (plivto-
•Bdionp "Aoua-
mephvton .

Dose 10-150 me
by slow i.v. the
first day.

Coremarin deri-
vatives.
Warfari n
Rat poison oral
anticoairulates

Monitor proth-
rombin time to
julde therapy.
Fresh blood trans-
fusion mav be
needed.

POISONING WITH ORGANOPHOSPHATES AND CARBAMATES

a'-if (nanbanert’ies cmsw erwfes'f hetf lift

problems amoijr pesticides because of their extensive use in
aerieulture. These chemicals produce adverse effects bv their
powerful irtiibitory action on the enzyme cholinesterase producinc
a rise in the amount of acetYlcboline, a neuro-humoral chemical
transmitter. Acetylcholine is liberated at nerve lunctions and
acts on receptors by (a) ProiiucinK contraction of the smooth
miscles of the respiratory, jrastrointestinal and pemtourl narv

229

tracts (bJ secretion of exocriK* ilaTls llacrsmil. salivary,
bro-Khial gastric anri sweat ^Isirls) (c) ri“pr"ssin» th» rate anri
force of cardiac coitraction and yasolvlation (d) ceusinr aVclc-
tal rnjsclp paralysis as a result of persistent d“polariration
a-si (ej stinwlatins and depresslut th* central T<»rvcios system.

Wil<[ jwisoTi'K with cholinesterase i*ijjbjtc«rs may b“ mam-
as headaclie fatiiw“ di?j-i-r»ss b1'irr*d vision, excessive
■weatirc ■Busea anri voritinc stomach eramos inf-rhoea apl sali-
vation. Th-se snirptoms can be seen in ilT-y s« mt related to
pestictde poisomnc such as iiflu^va ensi roe-iteri tis and heat
exhaustion.

^odoratelv severe toinontne can produce all syirptoots of
mild Doisomne eyeh as cheat pain wheejmc Intibilitv to walk,
muscle twitchinc airi show pfBoint ptfpils. Th" physician mav
RTisdiaenose the patient as havinc mvocardial infarction, asthoma,
pneumama or enceiihalitis.

Severe poisomnc usually results in loss of consciousness
local or reneralired eonvulaiona ant wtjrsemnc of symptoms wtucb
are seen in ntylerate poieomnc. Th® patient mav b" mistakenly
diseased as sufferinjc from cerebrovascular accl lent.

Treatment ef orfratiphosphate anri carbaimte poisomnc is
mainly directed towamfs th* establlsfteent arl malntcaance of
patent airwav, inclvhnc artificial respiration when needed, and
BcWmstratloa of antidotal therapy.

Atropine (sulfate ari ottter salts) blocks (he action of acetvl-
eholine In the muaearin receptor sites and all smooth muscles)
anri til* central nervous system.

If the patient is not cvamtic. atropine la injected intra-
venously at a dose of t to A me everv five to ten minutes until
eisns of atropine jcivea by intramjaeular route to ovoid ventacu-
lar fibrillations onlv after evonoais has been relieve«l can
atropine b" jciven intravenously. Atropiniration should b“ mai'v
tailed Zk to 72 hr or even more bv parenteral arhn nlntratlnn th"
interval anri dose depenrls on seventy of poisomnc anil monitored
on an iilxvidual basis. Th»r« is a hijth d^irree of tolerance for
atropine ia oreanotAiosphatc end carbamate ooisoninc. '^loritv of
Cases are l-BcWiuatelv treateil (u'ri"r atropiniaeri) result! ne n
r^currexff tpf avi Atrfnri ip /ray hp bv

the oral route once th® patient Is fullv conscious and contimi-d
for several davs for as lone as ala's and sympttirrs of poisonint
persist.

Atropine dosace in children is 0.03 mr/kc body weicht per
tlose. Exchance tra nsfuslon mav be life saving in severe orcano-
phosphate/carbamate poison! nc In children.

Oximes may be helpful in severe orca-nphosphate polsoiiinz but are
central niicated ia earbaritste lovicitv. If oximF-s are used, they
exist be iriven early er»iicti. to assure that they are rich phospho-

230

rylated choli Testprases whilp th** phosphatp-evN-me boTri can still
be cleaved to reeeTerate choli*»sterase.

Pralidoxlre, obldoxlme a"*! Hiacetyln'OToximG are friven l^tra-
ve-xjusly and are effective to relieve skeletal muscle paralysis
induced by orsanopbosphates. Diacetvl monoxime is the most potent
in reactivatine brain cholinesterase. Oximes are not effective
when jtiven alone concurrent atropine therapy is necessary. Otlier
therapeutic measures should include

a. Correction of fluid-electrolyte imbalance Includinc the
metabolic acidosis with sodium bicarbonate.

b. Treatment of convulsions with diarepam or diphenvlh\dan-
toin.

c. Attendance to concomittant cerebral edema and cardiova«-
cular complications.

d. Good nursln* care.

The followine drues are absolutely contraindicated in oreano-
phos{^ate and carbarate poisoning opiates, xanthines such as
arrdnophylline, phenothiazines, reserpine, tranouillrers ani suc-
cinylcholine. Furosemide may be administered if indicated occur-
rence of hypokalemia or low serum potassium must be avoided,

Orsanophosphate/earbamate poisomnc can be diaznosed by
determination of cholinesterases, urinary metabolites, anti intact
pesticides.

Hed cell cholinesterase activity correlates well with nervous
system cholinesterase activity whose depression is usually paral-
lel to seventy of poisoninc in its initial ataees. A depression
of 25 % or more is atronz evidence of excessive orjra nophosphate/
carbamate absorption. Tn cases of susp-cted poisonine, value of
Q.5 ph/hour or less {Michel method) of red c“ll choline«terase
represents abnormal depression or probable pnisnnine. Plasrra
cholinesterase levels may be depressed In conditions other than
pesticide poisomnc such as liver disease, malnutrition, hyper-
plasia, myocardial infarction, demvitomyositis , after certain
drues {procaine, n-ostijemne. etc.) and in inrtivuluals with gene-
tically low plasma cholinesterase. Low red cell cholinesterasp
may bo dopressod in severe anemia a^l in rare conditions such as
paroxysmal hemozlohi nuria anil disseminated sclerosis.

Chronic exposure to orca nophosphates and carbamates can lead
to significant depression of red cell and brain cholinesterases
that siffns and sjitiptoma of intoxication occur, Tlie victims shoul.l
be treated as in acute poisomn* and prevented from further
exposure to anticholinesterases until cholinesterase levels have
returned to normal values. Investigators have also foun:! a sitni-
ficant increase in the incidence of leiicnpenia and neuroloeie
sijtns (loss of reflexes, tremor, ataxia) amonz workers exposed to
orzanot^iosfdiates than the control pofjulation. Reversible hut
persistent neuropsvchiatric chances have also been reported In
people chronically exposed to parathlon.

231

ORGANOCHLORIDES POISOVISR

Fbisou’K with orjraTochlomH pestlciips happns tliro ich
occiHe-rtnl or ^1to^tln■al iwstioT, i-<>alatioi. or p^rcuta loous
absorptioi. The fxact rnechaiism of actim hs wliich toxieitv i ■)
man is pro^tucefl hv the orffanochlorines has ut beon fulU i
fiefl however, th" rrain mamreatstion coiilrt h» rfttribiite<i to
predomiunce of s^-mpathetic tone and central nervous s\stpm sti-
mulation.

S^Tiiptrois of acute paisomnc include parathcsis. oxciterwnt,
«ddin“ss and fatieu**, tr^mara coii/v) sia’i and coma. \ai!s#a and
vomitinp ere prrmxnent wl»en the chrmical is invested. Pulnxjnarv
ei3eim is crrmijn. Respiration nm be stimulated initiallv and
later depressed, ^lens and sintitrinis of toxicitn are usuallv
affcravated bv the effects of petroleum solvent.

Early s^■motoms of chronic poisonine are headache, loss of
appetite, mscular weakness, fine tremors, and apprehension.
Liver degeneration vrlth hematoloeicaX chances •'uch as anemia,
leucoevtotis and kidnev rtamaee max occur. Complete recovery is
usual if the patient avoids furtlier contact with the chemical as
soon as the condition is diacnosed.

Severjtx, onset a-xJ persistpxe of lone effects varx wjtli
different chlori*nted insetieides depenhne on npch factor* a*
persistence after application, rates of such ab«orption, storace
in body tissues and metabolism.

Meinaecment of poi*<onin« is iMinIx nxmptcmatic. ^ince convul-
sions and resplratcrv patholoey both lead to anoxia and death,
the control of eomndsions and treatmnet of pilimnarv wlrma ore
of paramount importance. Airway clearance and o>fyeenation can be
attained by early i ntubation in moderate to severe ca«es of
p»/isoni It. IntriJvpnous fiiro9»*njde mav ht* aripi nistered fur pulnv-
■wr\ edema. Barbiturates or diazepam bs intraxtsnous route tan
control Cowulaion. Ftienytoin helpn prevent not onl\ convulsions
but also cardiac arrhythmias which occur freouentlx since these
chemicals sensitize the myocordiisn to endoeenous epinephrine and
norepinei^inm*. Intravenous mannitol or dexemethasonB may be
necessary in patients with cerebral edema.

If the poison is Jicesterl, saline cathartics may be civen
after lavaee anri activated charcoal aihunistration. Oils, milk,
cream aad other substances containinjr veretahle or anitral fat
should be avoided since these products eniiance absorption of
orsaTichlorincs. Amonc contraindicated dnies are epin^ptinne and
other adrenereie scents.

A hich calorie low fat diet has been reported to improve the
recovery of patient from orjtanochlorine poisnmnc.

DIPYKIRVL POISOVIbt;

Paramiat and diouat produce local imury to the skin, noils,

232

eyes, mucosa of mouth, resplratcM^ and nastro-lntestinal tracts.
Paraquat in concentrate solutions nay casuse inflanmation, nec-
rosis of skin and mucosal llninfts, shedding of nails and delayed
heallnit of cuts and wounds. Izhalatlon of dust or spray may cause
nasal bleedinit. It is very toxic when digested. After oral Intake
gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and abdominal
crempa are prominent. The second phase occurs four to five clays
later with liver and renal pathology; the patient develops .jaun-
dice and anuria. Should the patients survive these phases, pulmo-
nary proliferative changes occur until be succitnbs to respiratory,
failure. Those who survive should have careful pulmonary followup
as long as six months after poisoning.

Contamimted skin and eyes aust be irrigated for 10 to 15
minutes with copious amounts of water. An opthalmologist should
be consulted for any eye contandnatlon. Ingestion of dipyrldyls
should be treated irrmediately and vigorously to limit absorption
by doing a lavage with seven percent sodiin bicarbonate and
giving effective adsorbents and 30 percent suspension of Puller’s
earth. Excretion is facilitated by giving sodiim sulfate one hour
after the adsorbents and induction of forced diuresis with either
mannitol or furosemlde. In severe cases, peritoneal dialysis or
hemadialysis may be life saving.

Corticosteroids and expectorants like anronlm chloride and
potassium iodide may be of therapeutic value in minimizing pulmo-
nary damage.

NITTIO AND CHLOROPHENOIS POISONING

Dlnitro-orthocrcsal, pentachlorophenol and dinitrobutyphenol
are used as insecticide sprays fungicides and wood preservatives.
They are potent metabolic stlmulatora by the uncoupling of cellu-
lar oxidative phosphorylation.

The main manifestations of poisoning are high fever, rapid
breathing, fast heart rate, eyenoeie and muscle cramps. Death
from respiratory and circulatory collapse occurs within 24 hours.

Therapy is mainly directed at preventing body heat acctarula-
tion with the use of hydrotherapy (cold packs, ice eneiws),
adeqtiate fluid replaeenrenta and chloropremarine. Antipyretic
drugs are not useful aai may do more harm. Oxygen therapy Is a
mist. Artificial respiration may be life-saving. If ingestion Is
the route of poisoning, five percent sodiun bicarbonate lavage
should be done followed by saline cathartlsis. Prevention of
kidney and liver damage should be instituted early. Hemodialysis
Is of questionable value due to hl^ degree of plasma protein
binding of these sustances.

AMTICOAGULAWT ROOEWICII® POISONING

The hydroxycounarine and various acyl and aryl Indanllones

233

kill roti»ats Ijy tyotliropto l n foroatioa and directly la-

.iitrla? blood vessels resultlw is heeorrtxate, ft>i*oziiai? may occur
thrtwgh a larjre aiaitle oral iata3ce or rapested oral ia?»atio3 cr
pcrcutareous exposure. There is a late.acy of ssv^al days before
of polsoaioe are sees.

The Bstidote for astieoarulast rodcaticldss is vitarnia K.
The aiweaus vita-nia K (phytoaadioae) is preferred, pivea subcuta-
aeously or latrartiscularjy la ipg doses, iatraveaous route

rtty be reouired ia severe bleed! ap.

Fresh vhole blood traasfusioa Is vsliuble la severe poisoa-
ia; to surlily accessary coaculatloa factors. Vitania C (100
several tleea a day) may be useful adiuat is therapy. Secoartary
iroa deflcieaey aa^a nay be treated with en-al ferrws eulp^te.

ENVIROHHENTAL IKTERPRETATIOH

Dban Eerkaria*

The people visit mtlonal parks, mo^swats. a zoo or aa
area of CTutstacdlaz natural Irrtereat form a very select part of
the population These are people Mho are already rrotlvated to an
extent of nakinjc the decision to visit such a place. It would be
too Ruch to say that their primary interest is on eirrlrotnetit or
culture or that they have corw to learft sanethlns. la may cases
the visit may merely be a picalc or an outln!(. At times, the
person may tct have made the decision at all. but his aeeorrpaay-
Inz aisther peraan who has persuaded Mm or her to Join in the
trip. All the sarrm. the 15000 people who visit the Katha Katloal
Park each year or for that matter the 1-3 million people who
visit the Delhi Zoo have some more motivation than the average
person in India.

The places they visit also offer an incredible opportunity
for education. Here we are nnt deallns with the model or a chart
or some other form of representation of a reality, but are Is the
midst of reality itself. But the experience of a visitor staMlng
in front of the Ta1 Kahat can never be eonpared with that of
seeinx the best photoieraph or a scale rrodel in a museum. It is at
this vital moment when you have a motivsted visitor sod the real
obiect In front, whether it be a monureot, a tree, a mountain or
an ardmal that Is an ideal time to learn sorethlag interested
about what he sees. This is the moment when the person is inter-
ested and wants to know rmre. Hs may wish to know sonetMsjt about
the history of the place, may want to know the b^iavlour of some
animals, he may wish to know somethlnjr about the context or even
a structural detail. If the right laformatlos Is given at tMs
right rmrnent it would be the ideal form of envirosneat education.
This form of envlronnent education is corronly rafered to as
interpretation which will be the focus of my eomrents today.

The Centre for Cmniument education at Mvnedabad Is today
involved in two ralor interpretive progranmes at the Kaiha Natio-
nal Park in hhdhya TVadeali and the Natioal Zoological Park at
Delhi. Wc were also eag^fed earlier i.aa variety of Interpretive
progranmes Including an eTdiibition and a booklet on Glr National
Park, a map on wildlife sanctuaries of Gujarat, educational
package for visitors to the Bazxlhipur Tiger Reserve, educationl
folder on several tiger reserves and an educational panphlet used
at wetland habitat. We also collaborated with the National Museun

•centre for Bnvirormant ffdueetlco. AAeedabed S4, Jadla

235

of Natural History. New I>elhl. to prepare interpretive iraterial
like take-heme labels, aatl a ttorkbook that can be used at the
Kiae«n. Tbday I will draw oa experiences of oaa of our protects,
vl2* Interpretive IVo^rame for Delhi Zoo to discuss the theme.

Interpretation can be considered a conmunlcatloa lick bet-
ween the visitor aM his experleacs. Interpretation ia an eduea-
tieml activity which aim at meaning aal usderataBdlfi? to
what is seen. Ibe firat-hacd experience is eifianced by illustra-
tive and audiovlaual media. Iha aim Is not to coRirunlcate factual
Information but rather hlghten ttie quality of the observation. It
tries to create a secaltlvity la the visitor towards the beauty,
cotGplexlty. variety, and ioter-relatedcess of the eoviroanent; a
sense of wander, a desire to know and a better perception.

In general, interpretation seeks to achieve three objects,
^e primary objective is to assist the visitor in developing a
keener awareness, appreciation, and understanding aid to make the
visit a rich and enloysble exp^leoce. Interpretation also tries
to accomplish msaagement goals. For iBstance, in ease of the xoa,
the pr o gx * a iii i <e would have to educate people in terms of correct
b^iavlour as to mlolndse the dacaage that visitation does today.
Finally, Interpretation also seeks to rake people aware of the
larger goals of a progrsrm». Ihe role of zoos ia th* larger cen-
servatloB strategy of the country has to be eomnunieated.

Over a ndllloa people visit the Natiorel Zbelegieal Fbrk,
Delhi each year, khile on a working day (here would be SOOO to
3000 visitors, the rnsvlnrin push Is on the RefsJhlle Dsy, when the
ambers can reach a high 50OOO visiters. The cross section of
vlaitora is equally varied- urban, rural, young, old, illiterate,
literate, amll and large groups, disciplined, end vandala. Ihe
Zoo covering an area of 2 l*t acres has l 6 C 0 animals and is served
by 275 staff mewtoera. People visit the 700 to see the anlrmla. A
visit to the zoo is an activity people look upon es fua, as an
excursion and sonetlmes eves as a picnic outing. Schools, do txit
look upon their visit as a lessoa in ecology or conaervatloa.

It la in this context that the interpretive progranmo has to
be designed la order to help people usderstand the purpose of the
xooa. Its role in conservatlo') research and the propagation of
endangered species. 'The rain Interpretive theme, conservation,
has to be dealt with implicitly rather than explicitly. At is
stage shoilri the visitor get the feeling that he is being given
an unwanted dose of conservation TMssages or formal education.
The creative ability of the Interpretation team must be directed
towards creating an awareness of the role of the zoo in conserva-
tion without making it too obvious to the visitors.

People visit the zoo to see live atilrals. They do not come
to see exhibitions, la a zoo situation as far as possible inter-
pretation must be done in conjuactloa with direct animal viewing
experlanee. Outdoors rather than indoors, media that caa be used
along with viewing must be the prirary ones. Wayside exhibits.

236

carry-with-you imterialg and tha 200 aducatlon assiatants becoma
primary tools of the park's Intarprativa proja'anro.

The visitor centre at the aoo does, however, have an Inpor-
tant role to play. Viewing aidmals In enclosures at best can only
be a limitecl experience. Ihe mcrvement of animals, their sounds in
the wild and their textures cannot be experienced. With imagina-
tively planned exhibits, the visitor centre can fulfil this need.

The conservation theme needs to be treated inpllcltly rather
than explicitly. Through the wayside e)dilbits. the film at the
visitor centre, and the handbook, we would like to develop the
conservation message. Behind-the-scenes story would be best hand-
led throu^ a short film which could be titled "A day at the
zoo”. This could be ahown continuously so that most visitors get
a chance to see It. A special outdoor display where enclosure
design techniques can be displayed using actual artefacts and
tools used to keep animals successfully is proposed. This could
be developed la one of the empty enclosures and people allowed to
walk in. The role of the visitor centre exhibits would be to
conpllment throujdi interactive exhibits the enlrral viewing situa-
tion. Wayside eidilblts will be the primary media at the zoo. The
usual approach of providing stsrdardlsed InforTration on animals
ia for this reason mt adequate. Wayside exhibits will focus
attention of the visitor on specific animal cliaracteristics or
behaviour. At times it will have to relate a success story.
Wayside exhibits will sometimes need to relate the animal with
Its natural habitat.

A children's workbook has bean proposed aa carry with you
material that would eitiance the educational quality of the view-
ing situation. The educational component will be handled in a way
that at no stage do the children feel that they are being taugiit
a lasaon.

Sensitivity to anlrrails cannot be instructed Ixit needs to be
Inculcated. A children's zoo area where children are allowed to
approach animals at close quarters would be ideally suited for
this purpose. In this area of the zoo children could feed animals
and pet them. This type of area has elsewhere been very success-
ful in Inculcating sensitivity to eidmals and would also be an
introduction to how anltmls are kept in captivity.

School children form a large part of the zoo vialtors. As
tmst of them coma on organised school trips, we feel that special
progratnnes aimed at these target groups could be organised. In
addition to a dlacovery r oan , an Interactive approach has been
adopted for all the ejdilbits at the visitor centre. The discovery
activities will be designed in kits which schools could borrow.
There will be an introductory guided tour for schools. In addi-
tion, several Bp>eclal tours with guides and appropriate medls are
proposed. For exanpla, a trip to the zoo on the theme of African
animals could be accompanied by seeing a special film on their
habitat. Special worksheets and activities base^ around the Afrl-

237

cao th«m«9 could b« d«v«lop*d.

In addition to the geural film *'A day at the Zoo"> ve are
also reconrnsollog a film on tha role of the National Zoological
Park in comervatlon that would stress tha success stories and a
third film wwhieh would ahow many of the zco attinols in their
wild habitats. An audioviaual haa been proposed to show throush
slides animis In reference to thair habitats. This could be two
screen- slide prasentatioB, and dona Irajcinatlvely with school
children bains target goup.

Ihe first phase of the programme that I have talked about
will be tried towards the end of this year. This will give us a
lot of experience aol feedback, and we hope to receive comments
from many of you to Ifrprove the quality of tha intarpretatioi.

EHVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE KODAIKANAL
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

C. Karanakaran*

GENERAL FEAlXiRES

Kodalkaoal, famous holiday rasort, a haavan for peacaful
sattlamast aod location for aducatlonal and rasearch institutions
of quality, has rlsaa to fama and popularity mainly for follo^njt
raasons:

a) A bracing, cool climata with littla changa In tamparatura
throughout tha year dua to its hlfrh altltuda and geographic loca-
tion.

b) Its acanlc splendour with rugged mountains, deep valleys
and waterfalls.

e) Ita green cover of mtural vegetation and introduced spe-
cies of trees, shrubs and grasses. Some of these flowering trees
are of extraerdimry iotarest, such as F?>ode>dendren arboreum and
Magnolia graMiflora which occur indigenously here but have their
mtural habitat predominantly in the Himalayas. These along with
a few animals like tha Thar indicate eliiTiate changes in India
during the past ten thousand or so years following tlie retreat of
tha last lea Aga.

d) A plentiful rainfall spread almost evenly throughout the
year derived from both the southwest and northeast monsoons which
help in imlntalnlng the loccmpBrable greenery of Kodaikazsil.

«) The creation of an artificial lake ebout a century ago by
Sle Ver* Henry Levinge, the Irish Baronet, and Collector of this
District, by a cleverly coBstructed rock fill arch dam at the
neck of an Incomplete ring of hills.

Ihis lake is the most beautifxil and attractive aspect of
Kodaikanal providing recreational facilities and water for humn
coosunptlon.

f) Reasonably good access from the plains by two 'ghat'
roads, from Madurai and Palam.

In order to maintain and Ingn-ove the quality of life in
Kodaikanal, it is inportant to pay attention to and take steps
for the preservation of abova mentioned features which have made
Kodaikanal world fatnnus for its educational and research centres
and as a beautiful place for rest and recreation.

The hietory of Kodaikanal, particularly of the past two
decades, shows that there has been serious deterioration la

*rnternetional School, Kodaikanal, India

Z59

several priceless characteristics of this hill resort, thie to ut-
wise hu^aa activities. If allowed to cootnue. it could sariousl\
daiTBee tha finzlle ecoavstew of th» Koctaikaial area, to tVi»
exteit that It jtw\ he difriciilt to r“triev* th» positioo aid
recapture or recreate the oriaimJ beauty and usetuli»s« of
area.

ENVIRONMENTAL OEGRADATIOS

Some examples of eiviroimental pollutioi a-ri dsterioratioi
which have beei Ideitlfied, based upo*i the studies carried out n
the Eiviromeital Scieices Dtviaioi n tti* Kodaikatel Ihtena-
tioial School, are eiveT below.

It IS well k'lown that vecetatioo ha*! a positive coitributarv
effect oT climate. Deforestation man cause reduction ii ranfall
while removal of the ver“tatioT cover particularlv oi the steep
slopes cheractenstic of tha ar^a would definiteli cause severe
•oil eroiioi, Punryai of sotJ nhzc} zs Fr3Cticall\ irrepJaceobli,
would prevent further crowth of vccelatim and will start the
VICIOUS cycle towards cteserttficatjoi. Several examples of severe
soil erosion as result of hunan activities w>re studied in this
school, particularly in tracts *«ti*re terrace cultivation is prac-
ticed, Vihere such cultivation is attwppted on slopes steeper than
the critical aniela of "tebility, the entire terraced structure
slides down eausine extensive and irrevocable danoce and substan-
tial losses,

Ihcre has been extensive tres cuttinc in and around Kodai-
kanal ia recent years to the extent that old residents state tliat
the face of Koilaikanal has clwK«d and its b»autN ustsrinrated.

Monaculture

7h»r* has been considerable controiersi reeardine the intro-
duction of foreijtn tree species into th» Kodaikanal area, manlv
Eucalyptus globulus and E^ rxwnticusl Pipe end Wattle

( Acacia ). All are economically ingwrtant providing fuel, fibre to
industry, oil and other cftenncals. Tliev are also attractive in
appearance and are to be seen in and around KoAnikanal as giant
stands of timber which form a tourist attraction, particularlv
the one in Bi-yant's Park wliicli des“rvea special mention From th“
above it can he seen that that th» nost important factor in
enviromental protection in this area is planting trees. In the
choice of trees to be planted, several aspects cm be considered,
finxii the point of view of beautv ani elegance of fruit trees,
flowering trees, the eco’nmicani important timber tree® aM the
indigenous vegetation of the area known as shola forest.

240

?hola Forest

A« mentioned earllar, Ko4aika*til is famous as tha natural
habitat of two attraeti\a flowariae traas, namely. Rhododendron
arboraum a.ii ^fagnolia grandi flora besides the Himalayan Cherry
( rruTiis~ pocidors ) , oak ( Quercus Incana ) and many others
which are indigenous in the Himalayas anJ which along with a few
other anirwls like the Thar or mountain goat and other manrals,
reoreseit tha cliratic changes In the Tniian avbeontiaant follow-
ing the last lee age. khlle these trees are to be seen sparsely
distributed in the forests or private gardens, they are conspi-
cuous b\ their absenss around the lake or alone the main avemes.
Other attractive tres which need attention are Eucylyptus (E.
fissifolie a.nd E. cltridora) with its clusters of orange coloured
blossoms and several trees and shrubs. These thrive m the shola
forests in the valleys twrt are being replaced rapidly by the
econamicall> irtportant varieties of Eucalyptus and wattle.

It IS hishlv Irrportant to preserve the shola forests which
i.ncluded several fruit trees support a variety of life especially
bird life, on these hills.

SiiTultaneouslv with the planting of trees and equal Import-
a.'jca to their proper ajrturinjr, special attention mist be given
to the protection and improvement of the lake and Its e.'virons.

Kodal Lake

Since the lake has been artificially created, it has an
unusual and attractive scaliopped, four petal shape caused by
water backing up into the main and tributary valleys of tha
origi:»l river svatems. Tha lake is bordered all around by fairly
steep slopes upto the crest of the ridges sumniodinr the lake.

The slopes are occupied by residential buildings, schools,
hotels, plantations, farms, a park and a few acres of mixed
forests of indigenous ani exotic vegetation.

TVie lake waters have definitely deteriorated during the past
few years. From being potable and popularly used for swlimilng la
until a few years aet>, specialJv bv the Kodai School students and
staff and holiday makers, the water on recent chemical and biolo-
gical tests recently, has been shown to contain deadly bacteria
a-xl viruses.

Periodical analvsls of the lake water co.ndueted in the
Enviroinental Sciences division la the Kodalkanal school, has
identified locatio.ns of influx o' nolLutinr wastes into the lake.
Tbs School has also identified maior areas of pollution and other
aspects of environrenta’ wcterioration la and around the Kodai
lake area during the course of studies last year. These are:

a) Entrs of partially treated and untreated sewage consist-
ing of fecal wastes, food wastes, detergents and various decom-
posed material at several points.

241

b) of thft tmrUnol 7 om« of the pnrtleiilerly

1.1 the rectw*! v*ier» the velley* of the olU etre/m ere loceted.
TTife f^e.Trrft.n.i, k.irrv.i n- eutrofiilCAtioo. een frop*ee*lvaly dJri-
aleh eren enl ttie v(ihr"6 of tte wnter.

c) Inflim of onri ferttlleere fren the fnnre esrl

oreherd* o.i the elope*, by fe^ereeelve run off fJurJ.w Htri offer
rel.T-i. Ibeie ere pftrtlCMtnrly loceted eln,*i 2 the etetth-weetern
lector of the InVe.

0 ) Ttie toe of the ofope. that in tte fcmeet pert, le
exterotvely eiii Into or exeovotett hy twrrwn nre.ojfe*. eo Ihot In
mTTi tort*. It in either verfJeol or overhnnrfo?, Thle leorf* to
IrKtnblllty of the *lope. errtnojerl .77 the Ptnrrl* of tlrher nhove,
eJ«oV{or the tirofviee e-*»J f»!»o poei.it o tttrent frer* lofrl ellp*. to
the IaV» rtttri Hr t){ .

e) fVnrhnve ren^rntt'l nrmiir) the InVe tn rwepi l.ito the lnke<
Ttili comlxt*- of teor'e lyjnr eTileh 1* it citrritr of dsndly telRni*
tifii oDier rer—*. forri woetee frm* the InVe cltih r*«t«ierR.*rt itfii
litter left t<v pleirKker^ orcrinri the Inke. Xt pre«e!Tt in the
et*i?iCB of Tnree ni'hi«h fil.T". the people (tet ercotfrered to fi/rp
their wfint»" Into the Inke.

The JfitrifiK irtrvjrle'1 i*ro*i»l the Ink* hhve t\rn\rtn rilllhf
the efflMeitt* l.ilo fh* Ink*.

f) kn«hl.ir of vehicle* Iia« heeer*e « eer»rr>,i preetice for
r*eltleXi'/ln’'tltutlo.*w/rt,y1 the lri«l»»«* ctmoi.ilty, nt the Ink*

Till* t!efn«lte oil «?rl other wnete* w*)jch ere mi hfcr)*it»
rA'lehlft, dlreelly ifrto the Joke veter.

r) Vehicle*! trtrvelif.if «t Mfh epeed «loP7 the Jeke rontl
iwjee fi lvi7orfl expiclnllv to cblltire.i e.iVrylor tbeJr racrentioh
eroinrl the Itike .

Mlurnl “or«he» Arotinrt the loVe

0,1 /ircCTJ-il of thp foot thnl the JnVe hn* hee.i fortne-fJ by
fViirl.17 It river with tliree trlteiterlee Into M*ilch the meters hf»ve
Mckerl up pftrtlfilly fllllnr fhe^. rever*| troreh Ift?rl treet* of
rreet .uttn'itl hemity occur orou.vl the Ink*. TJiexe support n
ehtirnettrf*-tlc veretntlon ••Ith o verlety of wUd flovern nrrl
bnhltnj for forT“* of itnri Mrd life. Amor the** trllrl

tvjfir fi.irl t<orct!pln» nre »*wrth epeelel ere.it ion.

The«e minor ecoiyrteme ore preclcrw n»peetr of 1h* KMnl
InV* eirti emr! rojet he preserve'! !» their i> pristine etnte. hit
nlreft'ly there /ire nlnmlnz «lfn* of deterlorotlo.i In then# micro
fr.-lro.T's.it* ertifch nro frorlle l.i chorocler. finmaetfc veefe* fjo-
ttirmeti them; «emie hw* been fvirl 1*1 ly rtrnlnr'l otvt eop/erted for
other f*}rjo«e«.

Th» Icrxrohlp

*vny frem the vnlley v*ileh holde the Inke nrri 7epflr*tei1 frem

242

it on the east by a rldpe, lies the township of Kodaikanal with
the satellite towns Mooniikal and Nayudupuram , and some vlllajjes.

With the rapid increase In tourism and the firowth of several
new Institutions including a factory, population of the townships
has Increased very rapidly brlnjtinjE with It all well known prob-
lems of rapid, unplanned urban growth. Choked sewage systems,
scattering of rubbish in areas where drains do nst exist, appear-
ance of liquor shops in areas visited by ladies, deterioration of
roads unable to bear the highly increased traffic under the old
maintenance projrramnes , inadequate supply of safe potable water,
shortage of fuel etc., are some of the problems that appear to be
steadily inountlnr.

Among the ominous signs was a dreadful proposal to meet the
ImagiiMry problem of public transport by creating a bus termiml
in the Burton corrpound well away from the township. This spot
just west of the lake Is at present a beautifully wooded spot.

This proposal was wisely vetoed by the District Collector,
an action quite worthy of her illustrious predecessor who had
created the lake itself ahoiit a century aeo.

Conmaats

The above brief narrative of the urgent eo/iroyneatal prob-
lems besetting Kodaikanal and growing at an accelerated pace,
hlgtillghta the urgency for creating a Master Plan for the preser-
vation of Kodalkaml as a beautiful place for study and recrea-
tion. It IS also necessary to achieve this objective, to consider
the posting of carefully selected officials and inclusion of
prominent citizens, possessed of the necessary awareness of envi-
ronnental awareness and wisdom to deal with the problems peculiar
to this rare hill resort,

ROLE OF KODAIKANAL SCHOOL IN PROTECTING TTiE ENVIRONMENT

This High School is perhaps the first school in India to
introduce a full-fledged course on Esvironsental Science with a
component for practical field studies, including field sampling
and chemical a»lyses, terrain evaluation, map reading, field
mapping, planting trees and so on. This has already attracted the
favourable attention of the Minister for Enviroonent , Govt., of
India.

The School has besides, a few other relevant courses such 0=
on Science, Techmlogy and Social Change, Geography and on Social
Sciences. Al^o some pioneering studies had bee.n carried out on
the use of solar energy in water heating to supplement use of
conventioail fuels,

Tlie Kodaikar»l School possesses the necessary expertise and
IS actually carrying out studies relevent to environnent in the
following specific areas, as a continuing progrartrre' Systematic

243

sairrUlnc anfl rapirl datemiiMtloa of acidity of water to locate
ponts of pollution.

TViis will be supplemented by the follovdn* studies when
suitable equipsient is availablet

Dstemii nat ion of G.O.D., dissolved oxycen, nitrata-N a.Tri
phosphate content, Lietit penstratioa In water usin? the SeccM
disc. This IS a direct i.ndicator of otr^iae content, Lake bottm
sampllnc and analysis. Slope analysLnc accorrilnjt to international
practice: Terrain evaluation usiaz aerial photoiraphs in stereo
pairs and stereoscope, larze scale topojtrapshjc maps to periodica-
lly assess chanzes in cultural patterns and land use: Preparation
of larj:e scale maps of selected areas to record and interpret
points of envlronnentBl pollution: Soil analysis accordiaz to
11. S. Pent, of Azrieultiire standards. Svstanvntic classification of
flora and fauna ineludinz wild plants and animal life; Manazement
of nurseries for plants anti tree plantinz as a conti>Tiinz prozra-
rirre' Study of urbanisation and rural <)svelocnent In selected
areas.

246

Plant resourcas developneat should include aitiancement of
agricultural productivity, conservation of Rermplasin of endemic
flora, IndentiflcatioD of species suitable for afforestation,
local herbal medicines, grassland and pasture development, agro-
and plant based Industries, and lirprovements in silviculture.

Energy resolurce deveelopnent would include renewable and
mnconventional resources of energy (wind, gyser, biogas, solar
etc.), micro and mini hydel power schemes. Improved methods of
corrtTUstlon, power projects, etc.

Mineral resource development would include survey of mineral
resources, their conservation, regeneration, optimal utilization
and ndneral baaed industries with suitable emi^sis on the reset-
tlement of areas degraded through mlniDg activities.

Hill transportation Includes its planning for the region to
cover hill railways, hl^d^ways, aerial ropeways, cablaways, ate.
In addition It would Includa design, construction and maintenance
of hill roads, ecological aspects of hijdway planning, utiliza-
tion of local materials (timber for bridges etc.) Stability of
slopes, airstrips and helipads inland, water transport etc.

Hill settlements would include planning of settlements,
utilization of locally available building materials like stona,
tinker, bamboos, habitat planning for earthcTuakes and flash
floods, low coat housaa, water supply and sanitation for hill
regions, power distribution for hill settlements and rural elee-
trifleatioo.

Among the associated areas, hill surveylang and renota sens-
ing should include geological, hydrological and topographical
studies through aerial eui*veyiag, remote sensing end (iiotolnter-
pretatlon methods.

Applied geology should include geology of hill ranges, tun*
nelllng methods, geological aspects of multipurpose p>roJects,
hl^ways, seismic studies, geological considerations for fixing
alignnents of cormunicatloD systems.

Disaster management would include causes, consequences and
mitigation of oiturel disasters (like landslides, earthquakes,
flashfloods, avalanches, snow bllzards , glacial flow studies),
contlgency planning concept, disaster prevention techniques,
vulnerabilalty anlysla, etc.

TOE FIRST STEP

As a first step In this direction, a P^st-graduata course
entitled 'Hill Area Development Ei^neering' has been Introduced
at M.M. Malaviya Engineering College, Gorakhpur. The course cove-
ring the above noted thrust areas. Is designed to impart special-
ized training to Civil Engineering Graduates.

This, however, is only the beginning. We have to recognize
the development of hill areas as a separate discipline for the
purpwse of study, wherein all activities taking place in hilly

24 ?

areas are considered In an InteicratBd manner.

Ihe scops of Enpineerltig education will have to be widened
to cover topics like the developmeot of post-harvest technclosy,
packicK processes, horticulture, aftrieulture, tourism, marketiag
mam^erreot. irdoerel resources devsLopnieot , admel husbaodary,
pollution free Industries, meteorological studies tribal studies,
etc.

SUGGESTION$ FOR FUIUBE EDUCATION

It must be borne in mind that Himalayan ranges alone account
for over of the country's total area. Comidering other
ranges like Deccan plateau. Western Oiats. etc., hills account
for nearly 22% of the country*' area, supporting a population of
around 1C% of the country's population, whose needs with regard
to their requirements of energy, food, clothing, shelter must be
assessed and satisfied through an integrated development program
without upsetting the eco-balance.

So courses at Post-graduate level only are not going to help
us to achieve our aim. We would requlrein near future about 15%
of the output of graduate engineers of the country to receive
tralnlit? in this discipline for which regular Undsr^gradute
ecMTses would be necessary. In the same proportion, teehnleal
peraonnel with Olploru and Certificate courses should be trained.
Adequate facilities for advanced studies and hljd? altihxle rese«
arch should be created to haimoitlza socieeeoirnlc develepnent
with eeo-preservatioB, eeo-development and eco^generatlon.

SOCIAL FORESTRY AND ITS ROLE IN ECONOHIC DEVELOPMENT
OF HIMALAYAN VILLAGES

R. C, Naitbani*

Himalaya la faclnj! today a irraat ecolosdcal crisis. Ihia can
ba seen and obsarvad in tha liiiabitad areas id^ara land is owned
by tha villagers. Agrictiltura has baan introduced over the slop-
ing surfaces by a ^adual process of alimlnatin,e tha thick forest
cover. Tha stowIok population has tended to over-exploit tha
ranawsble natural resources leading to enviroimental degradation
to the extent that tha basic existence of the hunan and bovine
population Is facing serious adverse iirplicatiogs. As population
has increased stresses have became greater and the demand on
natural resources has magnified. Eventually the consequence is an
imbalance between the hunan and aMmal populations oO one hand,
and the land, plant and water resources on the other. As the
demand by the farmer la persisting and increasing one, tha resou-
rces tezid to became depleted and the stress upon them becomes
even greater. Thus there has been set into operation a process of
progressive degradation of resources and consequent aovlroonental
degradation.

The basic problem In the hills per se is that of land use
mamgemeat, so far there la no well defined national lenduse
policy In tha country. The rain cause of the poverty of the hill
people is that they practice sn occupation which is not at all
economically suitable for a sloping land with conplex geological
formations. Nature demands that hilly slopes idth folded and
faulted rocks be covered with dense forests or there would be a
large scale disaster. The Himalayas have been settled by human
comrunities which migrated fron the plains of northern In^a. So
these people brought with them skill for those occupations only
v^ch were econcmically very successful in the plains. Time has
come when the hill people are made to understand, as clearly as
possible, that the econemy of the plain area can never become
equally successful In the mountains. Tha crop yielding tree actu-
ally offers the beat medlun for extending agriculture to hills,
to steep slopes, to rocky places and to lands where raifall Is
deficient, it is tha three dlmeBsionsl forestry which achieves
the synthesis of farming, tree growing and animal husbandry; they
dozst just complement one another but become a single integrated
whole. The traditional methods of agfleulture and forestry are
replaced by modern forest faumlng and anltnal raising activities
which are capable of adjusting to a wide variety of conditions
according to the demands of specific enviroimeots.

♦Government ColJege, Kotdwar* (Carhwal). India

249

Karsiml lands occupy a very hif#» paresnte^e of th6 Himala-
yaa cultivated areas. The first attempt in this direction should
bt to TOP and d&Tarcate all sudi marrljMl areas wlhtio every
village and assign them to raising of tree crops. An extemivs
lead capbility survey Is also aasential so that areas suitable
for raisin; of Itrproved grasses and aoodlands are iodentified.
Every site or surface cannot be suitable for pleating trees.
There are areas which according to depth of soil, aspect, surface
slope, hvinldlty and available sunshine can support only a grass
cover.

It is necessary to emphasise on generation of conditions
idiich are helpful to maintain a regular supply of water and
continuation of diversity in plant life of ths region. This can
be done with the help of measures to be followed to retain troxl-
fflura asount of rainy season surface ro3»ff All proCT'anmes of
plantation should be related to the economic developeent of the
area. Ve should plan for the recioD a chain of progranmas relat-
ing to public education and extension involving environneatal
eckieatlon, methods of planting trees and grasses, matatenanee and
care of plantations, group discussions, and similar progratimes of
attltudinal changes and ensiieipatioa of hill women from the
tremeoous physical aol mental strains caused by drudgery of hard
work,

Eeoocmie backwardness of the region con tminly be attributed
to the primitive structure of ecommy, lack of any industrial
activity, a litnted and gradually wamng resource potentiet, anri
dependeeea on a ps-irdtive system of scTleulture. Transport costs
are vary hl^ and the cost of providing economic and social
services tend to be hijdier. General production levels are too low
and accessibility to reproductive resources and icccme opportuni-
ties available to the people are very limited. The backlog of
devaloftnant has been accvsnilatinc and the economy costlsies to
remain in primitive state resulting la persistence of poverty,
migratllon of able-bodied population and lack of capital forma-
tion. One of the rajor socio-e c on omi c problems of the region is
to find InTrediate ways and means to relieve the wooien of their
tremendous physical strain, provida them with facilities of some
formal as well as informal education and create locally opportu-
nities of recreation ani amuserieot so that life becoses attrac-
tive and there arises In them a real to live for the entire
comniBity.

On the basis of local requlrementa for a successful planoLag
of social forestry in the trrperate areas of Central Kirmlaya, we
suggest planting of following trees, legumes aoi grasses to meet
local requirements for fodder and fuel throujiiout the year and to
raise improved livestock as an easy base for economic growth.

250

Trees: Baidilnla varlegnta, Coltrls auatralia, Grevda opposltlfo^
lia, Juglaos reirla, Leucaera leucocephala, Melia azaderach.
Mo rue aerrata, Robjgla paeudoacaeia , Populus clllata, ftnims
amygdalus , Flcua roxburghll.

Legumes: Atylosla acarabaeoldeSt Clltorla ternateat Pesmodiwi
uncloatui, Dollehos auxlll^ia, D» lablab, Medlcago sativa,
Stylosanthes hurdlla, TTifollten pratease, T. repaas

Grasses* ^achl^ia decunbens, Cyaodoa plectostachymit Chloris
gayaaa, Chrysopogoa fulvust Pant cun aatldotale, P» maxlmun

ENVIRONHEHTAL PROBLEMS AND ENVIRONffiKTAL EDUCATION
IN GUJARAT

r. Ravi*

GUJARAT ITS LAKD PEOPLE AKD THETR CtLTUR^

Gujarat the lan3 af Bea aixJ sand Samada atil Tapti textile
and nullc Krishna and Gandhi Lann acrf heelciai pacels and Jains
Pabaries and Parse^e is a colourful state wher« diiersit^
manifests in all its splendour (raanlficiertly

It ie a land where one will eee crcen pastures with cows
a «d buffaJOfcs leisurely ros.*tifVi

It ie a land where one will se<» line of ladies laden on
their head with water pots over the endless sand
dunes for Piles an! miles

It jp a land where one wall see thousands of chinnies
vpittina seoVe all the tine

It 18 a land where one will see Dallas and rivers in red
yellow oronoe oreen aid black

It as a land whe-e one will sc® peacocks dancino on fields
with all thejr beauty eleoanee and splendour

It is a laivd where one will see the fl-e frOTI the oil rics
ra\aoe the air all the time

It is the land where on* will s*® enileBS struaters in the
urban juncJes

It is a land where one will see Jain monks bea for food

with their bowl*, the spirutuol bowls not the beoBire
bowls- in their hand

It IS a land wher« one will see the Pichty N.irraria and

Tapti sorotipes roarino and so^tlpes danrino throutii
the hills and plains

It is the land where on- will see naoiuficient and
exquisite architectural splendour of Mosoues
Terples and Jarasarns

It is a land where one will se® the 1 o\b nakino of
land and the cea

Jt Js a land wbare ono wiJJ see the lion j\aar and
with all its royal eleoance and

It is the larri where one wall see the house where the
father of the nation was barn, and the abode of
Krishna and Soanath

Thus it is the land which can be the laboratory for envi-
ronmental education where fiv- different climatic ard biotic

■Csntrs for Environmental Piannin? and Technoio^,

School of Planning, Aheedabad, India

252

regions ar** existiia with longest sea coast In Irdia amoro the
States and second in industrialisation fourth in acriculture
developrient FIRST IN J*IR PCLLOTION and nay be probably first in
water pollution also (Sabarnati is the nost polluted river in
India) and also ironically (in an enviroinental sense) First
SOCIA^ FORESTRY And aoain it is one arono the states in India
where enviromental awaret^ss and enviromental teaching and
resea’"ch is in full swino Another rost inportant eocio cultural
enviromerr-al aspect is the attitude of the people attributed to
the irpaet of Jainism ano Ahlnsa towards nature particularly
towards birds and animals The strict vecsstarianisn fa ve»^
unigue characte»-isties of Jainism) full adhereme to Ahinsa and
overall peace Isvinc tature of the people ult nately resulted in
a positive effect on the ecosystem However- it is intriouino
that it s in •■hiB land where air and wafer pollution is ra.T'ant
which ultimately eats away the vitals of natural systems wherever
such problems are existing liVe Ahnedabad Baroda and Surat
aliro-t the entire south Gujarat region [particularly polluted
rivers due to development of chemical based industries in that
region) This phetrerienon aoain, interestingly can be attributed
to the basic nature and attitude of the people The people of
this State are Che irose enterpreunenal ones in India and the
induatrialisation of the State is nothing tait the result of that,
and obviously having Che dubious distinction as the maximun
polluted State

Thus is the place which can be identified as the laborer
tory for eiwiromantal education
Where on» will find

a fdr water and lithospheric pollution* ettrit«ted to irdus-
trialisatioR

b hater, lithospheric and ground water pollution attributed to
agricultural devolspnent to BOr>e extent air pollution also
c Anthropo^nic pollution due to the growth of alums in urban

centres

d Five different climatic and biotic regions and five different
ecosystems

e The first well developed rural and urban social forestry
network and finally

f Enviromental teaching and research institutions, like Vikra-a
Sarabhai ComunlCy Science Centre Nehru Foundation for
Developnert National Institute of Occupational Health,
Physical Research Laboratory, Space Application Centre and
Centre for Enviromental Planning and Technology

THE PHYSICAL ATTRIROTES

Gujarat has five different duaatic and biotic regions, (a)
comparatively himid regions of South Gujarat with greeneries in

253

all th« seasorss, <b) subbxadd region betw^n Baroda and Surat,
Cc) Sllrt\tly and region between Baroda and fthmedabad, (d} scsni-
arid region of ^arth Gujarat and saurashtra, (e) extrerely arid
and desert recaons of Rutebeh. and (fl a diversified narine ec9-
systen. This particular natural set up is an ideal arei» for
envlromental education <a rare distinction conparing to any
other state in irdia) as one can learn about six different eco-
systems sawultamously an one State Further south Gujarat is
blessed with nany rivera end luxurious ve^tation ani ironically
it is a curse that all these rivers and agricultural land are
polluted and hence one can lean about tha different aspect of
water pollution, estuarine pollution. areJ also pollution attri-
buted to the rodernioation of agriculture

ATraiBOTES <F PCU-UTIOH AN'O ENVISOWEVTAI, PSOftEHS
A. Industries

Gujarat is the second most industrialised State in India
(and obviously acuta water, air and lithospheric pollution prob-
lema). Ahredabad and Baroda afu the nost induatrialised regions
in the State, More than 42x of the tootal industrial units of the
state IS situated in Ahnedabad and 16 8\ in Baroda hTiile ireat of
the textile mils (which emit different types of air pollution
like particulate natter, carbon dioxide, nulphur dioxide, etc.)
and water pollutants like dye stuffs and toxic chemcals) are
situated in Ahnedabad. the laroe scale chemical, petrechenieal ,
pharraeeutieal and fertilizer, einning and processing untie are
located in Baroda (where air and water pollution is acute).

Most of the itediun and s-all scale chciTiieal units ere con-
centrated in the South Gujarat region {which le blessed with
nurbar of rivers, rallas and vegetation and now heavily polluted.
It is in this region one will see rivers and rallas in orange,
green and red. These water pollutants are aub*?eguently carried
away to the inarine system entirely geopardising Marroda, Tapti
estuarine region, one of nost productive estuarine syst«ii in the
world). Recently Arkleshwar in Bhameh District has developed
into a chemical industrial base in the State and because of the
ioeatiOMl aaVanta^s most of* tfte water pollutants are released
into the sea without proper treatment, also the water pollutants
from the Baroda Ir^ustrial cluster (itrou^ a 56 kn pipe line
system, after the primary treatment.

Thus all these combined pollution dumping on the area between
Bwiay and Culf of Carbay catastrophically affected the nanns
ecosystem. Mary fishemen ceojilain that they no more g"t suffi-
cient catch and that tons of fishes are dead and carried away to
the shore, ho systematic study is made so far to identify the
extent of narine pollution caused by these iniustraes. Thus, the

254

noet polluted region in Gu 3 arat as the region between Vapi and
^.hmed&bad.

The third industrialised region in the State is Surat where
one will find a miscellaneous industrial concentration, Textile,
Agate processing units (which mainly creates polution of particu-
late natter), food processing and machineries. As in the case of
Atikleshwer, Surat bIbo has cot locatioml advantages in diffusing
Its water pollutants to marine system. •

Though the pollution problems attributed to industrial deve-
lopment in other parts of the State like Rajkot, Surendraraoar
and Veraval exist, it is not so acute as that in the region
between Vapi and Ahmebadad (because of space coietraints we are.
rot able to make a detailed statistical and location aralysis of
industries and pollution relationship).

B. Agriculture

Gujarat is one of the agriculturally developed States where
the use of chemical fertilizers and agrochenucals (pesticides,
herbicides, fungicides and insecticides) has made deep inroads
into the Ulterior villaoes. The fertilizer use m the State has
made rapid strides during the last 20 years. The total fertilizer
coneiB^tien increased many fold, i.e., 11.07 thousand tons in
1960-61 • to 435.80 thousand tens in 1982-63. Such an increase in
fertilizer consis-ption has not ony brou^t agricultxiral pros-
perity (in an enviromental viewpoint, rather short lived) but
also emriromental problers. Kany of the irrigation ehaoTel net-
works (particularly, Kahi-Kadaia, tDcai) are pver-eutrophieated as
major portion of the fertilizers used in the field enter into the
canal systems. The canal systesr is also toxicated due to differ-
ent type of agrocherueals. The cem b ino effect of both these
contaminations resulted in several health problems as the water
from irrigation canal la used for drinking purpose also. Thou^
such problems and degradation of soil systems increase year after
year, no systenatic effort was eO far made to understand and
quantty the extent of the problem.

Arother envi r p weut al prblem etr^rged in the agnculturally
developed region of the state (Bulsar to Ahsedabad) is water
logging in Hahi-Kadama and Ukai coontand area in Kaira and Surat
District. Now ground water withdrawal schemes are under operation
to reclaitn the land from waterlogging by controlling the ground
water levels.

C. Deforestation

Though southern part of the state is blessed with comparati-
vely more veoetation. the total forest area, from a national
ancle, in the State is very less. When the latioral average is
231, the forest coverage in the state is only 9.97\. Further,

255

wst of the forest is of poor qiiolity of deciduous and dry
deciduous type Because of the great variation In climatic and
soil conditiors, the dietratoution of forest is highly uneven.
Thou^ the vigorous social forestry prograrrftB (firat one in
India) initiated by ore of the earlier Governors Kr K.K. Vishva-
tathan, helped to increase the forest cover 132,000 ha of rich
forest has-e been lost since independence A^in, further 130,000
ha of forest areas are lilcely to be deforested under Narmada and
other proposed irrigation projects {Narmada project alona vill
engulf 9B,0D0 ha of forest) Thus the problem of deforestation
and lack of proper forest coverage is acute in the state- In such
a situation, it is heartening that the social forestry pregraitne
has talcen its roots in Gujarat lopressod by the Social forestry
Prograrr* in Gujarat (203,000 ha was brou?Sit under social fores-
try) vorld Bank has given B# 65 crores for the further develop-
rent of social forestry in Gujarat anl adjud^d the Gujarat
Social Forestry PrO^affnea as one of the best in the horld (other
being south Korea)

Hovever, one ucportant aspect of the reforestation-defores-
tation ncchanisn in Gujarat is that deforestation is taking place
contiiuoualy in the traditional forest area vhere undulating
topography exists, reforestation la nainly taking place in the
plains of agricultural areas, including road ard canal aide plan-
tations. The enviremental ani ecological impacts of this eisoba-
msa are interesting to investigate. Nhile the deforestation tak-
ing place in the traditional bill trae);B result into severe soil
erosion, river ard reservoir aedieentatlon, ana flood in the
plains, reforestation taking place in the nerginal agricultural
lanis in the plains does not nitigote the problems created by the
deforestation in the hill tracks And as a result the traditionel
enviromental and ecological problerffi (as shown above) oriented
with deforestation continues unabated in the State. This can be
solved, only throu^ intensifying afforestation prograsnes and
fo-est rejuvenation progreis of the jeopardised forest ecgeyatem.
Hence, environnentally it is nlsleading ts infer the statistical
perfonoarce' Of area under forestry an cujarat.

D. Soil Erosion and Soil Salino-ty

Sw<C 2 Sl .'ivwtrj' zs- prcgsasrs-ing. CVe
soil erosion is constantly threatening the State due to defores-
tation in the traditional hilly forest areas. Though detailed
survey has rot been made to detendre the total intensity and
local specificity of soil erosion. It is estimated that an area
of about 40 lalch ha of land ss under different type of intemity
of soil erosion. The problem is more acute in the various river
basins such as Banas, Mahi, Nannsda, and Taptl as they are effec-
ted vith ths ravines called Kotar as a result of severe erosion.
When most of the South and Central Cujarat region is having

258

Mho were c9~pelled to Imtall effluent treatsnnt eysteo oeld^
operated the plant. However. Board vaa miceeeded in bringing as
naiy of 575 defaulters into the bosV ani 163 units were punished
so far.

Later, the Board was amed with more powers under the water
Cess Act 1977 and Air (prevention and Control oF Pollution) Act
1981 and it was re-tuned as Gujarat Water and Air Pollution
Control Board.

Though eone success was achieved as far as water pollution
18 concerned particularly in Baking cany of the polluting inSus-
trial unite get installed their effluent treatnant systen, air
pollution given a grm picture. Many of the units were asked to
increase the hight of the chmlnies, but no significant effo'^
was tsade to eiake the industrial units get installed electrostatic
precipitator to aolve the air pollution problen (probably the
only existing viable technlogical solution, though sophisticated
air pollution recycling and recovery plants are in operation in
developed countries). Further the Board is not having any control
on the transportation and don^stic sectors which contribute sig-
nificantly in the process of air pollution.

Thus, it can be stated that Gujarat is a unique State vd>ere
all types of enviromeetel probless (ecological imbalance and
pollution of air, water, land and ocean) iromeally exist with
ecologically conducive veoetarian and peace loving society and
social forestry progracces (ecolocieally positive factors) and
hanea, it la Gujarat which can be a full fledeed laboratory for
ervirOTrental education.

D.VIROK'^fTM. EDUCATION PROGRX‘K£S IN GUJARAT

It IS Dost heartening (appropriate and tirely too) that when
such an envlrorrental degradation was taking place, Gujarat has
initiated on firra footing a cocprehensiv* Ervirorrental Education
Frcgrcxoe. Of cours'*, idie State Institute of Education has reali-
sed the need and u-pcrtarce of emirorrertal education, particu-
larly considering the unique envirorrental condition prevailing
in the State. Gujarat is one cnong the first States to introduce
envirotToental education in India ard it has don* a correndable
job during th" last four years.

Both forcal and noi>*foraal etnrxr9ii:r>ntal education was star-
ted in Gujarat in June 1980 and in the first phase the ferral
err/ironcental education p^'o^ecne was cotifir»»d to lower prirary
sectioni i.e. frO"i standard 1 ta 4. Th.» eiain BbT.«‘Cti.ve of the
state Institute of education la to inplerent envirotrental educa-
tion upto hi^®r s«eot*3a-y lev»l in a phased manner.

Methodology and Objectives of the Prograar»»

A csrprehensive tailti-dieiemional and nulti-disciplinary

259

approach is adopted within the main ^^ective of envirOnrerit as
•medium of irstruction' . Here the main approach/nethodology is
that the envirorwental issues and ebservatieno have to be derived
from all the subjects which ere being tauoht to the etudente. So
that the student will learn the environmental issues (environnen-
tal linkages) related with that sxibjeet. This effective technique
helps the student not only to understand the subject and its
liricage with erviroiroent, but also the catpr'^heraivc and inteora-
ted framework of s irultl-diBCiplitBry conceptual understanding of
the entire gamut of man-nature relationship <in irfiicft the perfect
linkages of sciences and social seierees are synthesised).

By keeping the above objectives in nindi the State Institute
of Education created a new environrieiital division and an officer
was appointed exclusively for environmental education with the
primary responsibility of training the teachers and preparing
'Shi)(8hak Nirdeahini' (Teachers guide). Subsequently teachers
guide for standard 1 to 4 was prepared (Table T).

Reaction/Heception of the Teachers

This case study oriented approach was very much appreciated
by the teachers <a survey ta know the effectivormse of the course
for feed back itput in future programms threudi questionnaire
meCied is in progress) and it Is observed that many were enthusi-
astic in attending the training programmes.

After giving a course to the teachers > they were asked to
present/teach the aam thing to the students and )(pow the reac-
tions of the students. Vfhen the teachers were asked to oive
feedback, no questionnaire or methsdelegy was given, ve feel this
IS a slictfitly unscientific approach. In fact a well structured
questionaire could have been given to the teachers so that a
systematic observation can be ande from this exercise ani the
findings can be used as an input/guidanc* for the future program-
mes. Many teachers have prepared their Own observations and
presented in a group discussion. Unferturately no niiutea of the
discussion were made. If that was dons it would have been a valu-
able document. Such group discussions gave a golden opportunity
for teachers from different parts of the Btate to know how the
same theme was received by the students in different manner ani
effectiveness in other parts of the State.

It was observed by sane of the teachers that soma tradition-
ally passive students showed more interest when environmental
issues were presented before them within the framework given by
hhe Institute. At the same time seme students were confused, some
have asked many interesting questiora. And also periodical envi-
rormental education training course (with 4 month intervale) was
arranged In the imtitute for the Primary Teachers.

Natural Envlrotwant

260

•3

Tobl* 3. Ce«rs» eontirt Of Kol^-fo^wal Ewiramuntal education
(for children in 9 to (4 yr agy ^oup)

Hatural Environment
(seleneefl)

Social Environment
(Social Sciencea)

Our Vegetation
our Water*

Our Attroaphere
Water
OJr Body
Our Health
Our village
Our Gujarat state
Air Country India
Our World

Tranepo rt and Cominleation.

Our HOfre
fly Faadly
Our rood
Our School
Our Htlghbeur*
Our creatiran

265

bUTdred centres fcr the aoe cr«\^ of 9 ta 14, One 6f the rast
ercoxn’agirg aspect of nai^fonal education in Gujarat is the
inclusion of envirorrental education as an irpcrtant ani irtecral
port ©f adult education pro§rare«e. While other states lag behird
an this respect Gujarat has not only ta’cen lead hut also prai-ed
that en.irorrertal education will hirina tanaible tenefits to the
tareet groups (nainly the willaoors anJ tribals).

In the rcn-fomal education three subjects narely, lancoaoe,
rathenatics and ervirOjrentat educatian were considered, the
ervirorrertal education course was so prepared that jCll scier>oes
were tauciit threu^ erviroirental education.

h!ethodolocy and Objectiie

The rain ohjeetiw of erMrorrental education in ncivfomal
ecucation praesrame was to irould prOdnctii'e citasen by oivina the
scientific knowledge and skill so that they will know about the
personal and conrunity health and hyciene, about acriculture and
amnal husbanflary, social forestry and the irportance and useful-
ness of trees, the social and political responsibility, etc.,
which will hoi'e a direct bearire on the total de\-eloprent of the
State.

As in the case of fomal education, the main rothodolgay
adopted here also was case study approach, here the cas study
approach is rore senou# and achaeN-e-ent orierted. because while
the actual prcduetiMty or irpaet is secondary objective in the
formal erMrorrxsntal equation, in the nstvfomai emiroirierital
education the irpact, irvolver^nt and productiilty is the primvsry
coal. The adult receiiine the erMroir>ental eoueation is irreaia-
t«»ly reflected on society, econary and emaronsent. 8y keeping
this ebjeetiw in rand envirotrental issues are presented/taucht
to the adult student and he is even ciwn the Opportunity to
aupplcpcrt the discussion with his own personal experience, for
evarpin, wwen the ecorua-ic and ecological het»fits of social
forestry is taucht, the student is asked to eive the details of
different trees and about their nursing and culti'ation. Then the
instrcctors/teacher* will further extend the discussion to the
relationship petwoen the tree* and the birds, soil, elinv^te etc.

Thoucf! sons traimnc proc-a-f-es w.sre arrarosd, the frequency
of the trainitKi was less, conoared to the forral crMromertal
education proerrre. How«\er, the contents end range of subjects
covered were sa-e as an fomal envarotrintal education. Table i
cii"es the details of the course content of th® nan-formal emi-
romental education.

Response of Adult Students

The response fren the students were \ery encouraging. Hary
of then started experirertino and ai^lerentine the knowledge and

264

infonnation they got froni the class, particularly in the rural
areas. In nary cases, it was directly reflected on their up-
keepino of houses and unnediata enviroment. Most Of them started
replacing eou dung with agricultural waste for fuel purposes (and
cow dung to soil). In the tribal areas also the response was
fairly good.

FUTUPE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

So far, the environmental education was introduced only upto
standard 4. It is emisBrptd that the forwsl ewironrental educa-
tion Will be introduced upto hi^er B«>condBry level. A general
coTTTpulHOry paper la proposed upto ntandard-9, and the State
Institute is Beriously thiricing of introducino two special papers
which aUR at sowe sort of application and further apecialiaation.
The Institute is also thirfcittg to make special teachers for
en\ironTiental education both ot primary level and secondary level
(presently there is one general paper on environment “ach in
primary teachers training course and E.Ed. prograswe) . Another
idea 18 to start both open air and indoor 'Environmental Labora-
tories at least one in each Taluka Headquarters for SocOtdary
Schools) .

Contribution of Research Institutes
ard Voluntary Agansies

As stated above, Gujarat is blessed with msn/ internationsl-
ly known research inatitutions particularly in Ahmedabad. Vikram
Sarabhai Community ScienM Centre, Nehru Foundation for Develop-
ment, and Centre for Enviromental Planning and Technology are
three among th«n. These three institutions are actively involved
in ctrvironnental education. In Vikram Sarabhai Cownunity Science
Centre periodical »'nvirotr«ental education training is arranoed
for teachers coming from differetit parts of the state. Teaching
aids ard materials on enviromental education are prepared atd
supplied todifferent schools. Students of different age oroup
(from 3 to (5) are given an excellent opportunity to know about
rature ana natural sub-systems through pictures, mini -ecosystem
laboratory created in the Centre (in which different types of
trees, birds, and fishes are included/maintained) and also they
ore being taught about the importance of conservation of rature>
After the prelimirary exposure of different ecosystem concepts in
the Centres students are ^veo. snuiU- gtQvwite ta conduct, fiebl
studies/surveys on subjects like (a) vegetation around my school,
(b) vegetation in our farms, (c) vegetation in our village, (d)
my village and surroundings etc. end they ere esked to prepare
write-ups on what they have obvserved and later a oroup discus-
sion is arranged consisting Of the participating students and

26S

facultioe of tho centre.

The Centre is rroinly concentrating its efforts on tho nature
oriented aspects of environrental education Ard as a result the
Centre has succeeded ir creating a positive ecological attitude
among the children

The Nehru Foundation for Developnwnt is involved is conduc-
ting research on different eapects of environrentol problems
creating euvirofmental awareness aaong tho citizen in a non-
formal fashion The Foundation collects information on tho status
of the different aspecta of onviromvnt and publishes these
informations for tho benefit of the citizens The Foundation also
arranges mobile exhibitions on em ironwsntal problems, with a view
to create environnertal awarew'ss among the public Seminars and
symposia are also being arranged by the Foundation on different
aspecta of environsent and also documentation of inforTnation on
different aspects Of environnontal problems Thus the Nehru Foun-
dation for Development is playing an important role in educatino
thee citizes and creating cnvironnental awarenass among them in a
non-formal fashion

The centre for Enviromiental Planning and Technology estab-
lished 20 years ago is the first institution in th* country to
introduce an advanced multidisciplinary environriental planning
course at the post Graduate l**i«l This is the only cou’^se in
India in Envlronnental Planning (for that matter the first profe-
ssionsl ecTvironMRtal evaluation course in India) meant for pro-
lesBionals Hcrci both dieciplinary <environr>'ntal BeieneuSt
Envirstmental Engineering includina Environr^ntol Architeeturo
ard Etnironnental Social Scienc«>s) oid Sectoral (Agriculturci
Animal Husbandary. Fisheries, irrigation soeial Forestry. Ocean
Ecosystem and Resource Development. Forestry and Forest Resource
Development, Industry, Traieportation, Vator supply, Sanitation
and Sewerage. Etr*rgy Reseorcea and £f»*rgy Planrana} aspecta of
Environnental Planning education are taucht with o hioh decrw of
sophistication so as to instrumentalize the planners other pro-
fessionals ard decision-trakers in the process of achieving Econo-
mic growth with environrental bolanc— (particularly havirc many
berefacial economic and Emiroopental inplicutions in coun* ries
like India where pollution from poverty co-exists with pollution
from different development activities) Thus the en\ I’^omertal
planning education initiated at the centre for Environrental
Planning and Technology is the pioneer attempt in this direction
in India and this may bring le^y tangible results both iij achiev-
ing qualitative and quantltotive welfare goals

Thus, formal niri non-fomial and professional environnental
education in Gujarat ar“ w^el] organised and on a firm footiro
Herce, from the pres-pt cnviroitpental education network existato
in formal, non-fsrmal ond professional levels in the state, otw'
can be optirustic that Gujarat will be orr' among tho pioneers m
India in Environnental Education (and also ironically on* of the

266

moat pollute due to ev«r itKr^asing industridL azid agri-

cultural growth).

Hov! V56 Ca« Improve Further

The aood beginning read*- in Gujarat in Emiromenttil Educa-
tion both on forwel and non-formal nn3 professional levels ari^
laudable. Its approacbej and objectives as wc have shown above
are quite innovative end consistant with the objectives of natio-
ral development However, we feel a lot Of efforts y«'t have tO b«
don» so as to achieve the final 3bj<»ctivo i e make Gujarat a
pion=*er and innovator in environmental education and thus to
lay a firm foundation for economic growth with environmental
balanc®.

Ore of the basic guiding principles of teachers training in
environmental eduation is how beat they car be made os a catalyst
between the environment and the atudent> !.*» ,

a) To help understand the *-tud«*rtt the entire oamut of man nature
relationships based on facts, cmirontw-nta) disruption attributed
to man s d^velo^m^ntal ef'‘orts etc.

b) To help realize the student his rol» towards ervaronment and
how environment reacts towards ham (^.g. effect of ''nvaromi^ntal
pellutaen on aar, water, shelter, food and health),

c) TO h'‘lp mould the student as an envarorrmontally eompatable
catizen (or envarotmentally 'baased andavadual).

Achaovang the above oDj<^taves arenot so easy. A haehly
multadaseaplanary annovatave toachina approach as rm^ed. Probab-
ly foilowang methods, we feel, would give the desired results.

1. Teaching Innovation ard ingenuity Development Among Teachers
Conceptualization of Multi-disciplinsry Synthesis Technique

The teacher should be trained an such a way that they should
be able to develop a inulta-disciplinary conceptualisation within
them. To this some 80 ~t of a versatality has tobe developed by
giving inputs from science and social sciences, i.e in short, an
overall understanding of the entire man and natural systems. If
once such an ability was devolopx'd it becomes easy for the teac-
hers to aralyse a giv^n environnetital issue and peel out differ-
ent (disciplinary and sectoral litdcages) aspcets/linkages and
thusto present before the students that, what are the different
factors involved in a given emireimontal iSBue/phenomenon. Fur-
ther, such a conceptualisation process helps develop multi-dimen-
sional analytical ability within the teachers. It is in fact the
analitical ability which help understand an environmental Issue
by bifvircating th® phenomenon into different Bubsystems and thus
understand how a particular environmental problem was evolved end
which are the points that can be easily attacked so that the
problem can be solved. The guestiois now is how a course outline

267

ncoting the above 6 b 3 <'cti\»s can be prepared* 1 .

2. Oieciplinary and Sectoral Trairing

Teachers should ti*> first giwn a diacipline-wise training.
That iBi the disciplines vhich are directly relat'vJ with the
envirormehtal problema. For exoirplei if air pollutiar has to be
taught then, basic chemistry of th<* particular pollutant, the
physics and neteorology which govern the diffusion of that parti-
cular pollutant, the rnedical asp^ts of the respiratory system as
pullutanta create respiratory diseases the basic botany as the
air pollution rygatively affects the veoetation, have to be
taught Fere, when the teacher's are given the basic Icason on the
above eub^eets, the seetoral linkages car also be incorporated.
The sectoral linkages we mean by industry (from where pollution
Origxmteg), the human habitats (where the negative effect of
pollution IS felt) , agricultural and forestry (wh»»re the produc-
tivity is reduced due to negative is^ct of pollution particular-
ly air pollution) , etc This sectoral and disciplinary linkage
help iflprint an urbaffling conceptual framework in the mind of
the tschera and this is th* beginning of the process of versati-
lity in them. Like thia, when we teach ary enviromental problem,
such a disciplinary and sectoral inputs can be develped and
taught to the teachers both xrvaerviee and pre-service, teachers
training progranrea.

3. Pre-aerviee and in-service Training Proernms t priorities

Before we plan pre-service and in-'iervice training progrnwes
for teachers, we have to identify the ratiotal objectives and
national policy on envlromcntal education, such a policy is
again depending upon our priorities on national developirmnt
needs. The objective shculd be el**ar. whether the main objective
of environmental education is to create ervironrental ewarctV'ss
eiTorg people. Or is it that wc want to create environmental
technicians, enviroim^ntal adndnistratorB//Mnagers/plaR»«r« who
will help achieve the nation envirorBir‘ntal balance with economic
development (In fact, it should be both. But the taachino inputs
fCf both can not be the same/. Thus, For creating environmental
awareness we have to prepare a separate course outline synthesis-
ing the basic aspects of sciences, social sciences and enoineer-
ing with an effective persuasive teaching teehiiigue which will
mould the total behaviour and approach of the people compatible

*1. A methodology end wsubject conbinatisn are civen In K. Ravi,

A Blue-Print for environnentol Education in India, Presented in
the International conference on Enwironmental Education held at
New Delhi during December 16-20, 1981).

268

with envirormental n=^s (more or lass an infonration inculcating
ard iwbibing techniquei . Por creating awirofirental technicians,
odi-imstrators/planr^rs ate, it is skill formation technique,
whe-e tha irputs gii'an to the students will vary.

H^nca, wa have to train two types of teachers based on the
priorities shown above. That is one group of teachers for teach-
ino cnivironiTcntal awareness and other group for anvirenmental
skill formation While the forjw^r can be ganeral teachers trained
with irputs from environmental awareress and related issues (pac-
kage training programmes and sennits can be arranged for in-
s®rvice teachear and specific course and papers can be introduced
at primary and secondary teachers training prograsnes for pre-
service level), the latter has to be a specialist with adequate
laboratory and field experiments and experiences having aptitude
for such a training. The creation of a specialist from the exist-
ing g«=‘nerel teachers with itv-service trainina will be slightly
difficult as creation of an environrentally oriented technical
aptitude within him at this stage will be inoperative.

The first step is that we have to prepare the course-outline
for different classes and then cours'^-outlin© for teachers train-
ing prograrrma both for in-service and pce-service level (for
envirenrental awareness and envirementiu skill formation at
primary, secondary and tertiary levels). Because of apace cons-
^ainkS we are not able to discuss th* course outline here*.

Another iirpertant observation is that presently there is a
one sided approach in envirennental education. That is, when the
nature and conservation part, i.*., the ecological aspects is
given proper iirportance, th* development and toxicity aspects
(different d*veloptnint activities like industry, agriculture etc.
and the pollution an) enviromental/ccoloqical iirtelance created
thereby) like air pollution, water pollution, lard pollution
etc., are not adequately included in the environierttal education
prograime. a balanced cours* outline has to be prepared taking
these aspects into consideration.

CCVIC1.USIONS

Thus, ve feel that envirotsiental education is the very
foundation of our entire development endeavours. Because, it is
enviratcnretal education which le going to Bould the future genar-
ation who has to be a catalyst between nan and nature (i.e. who
can maintain thcrrselvcs throu^ the gudicious mamgement Of their
development efforts and resources without ^eoparadising the eco-
system which provides them resources). Gujarat is one among the

* Subject conbinations and related aspects are discussed in Ravi,
K. (19S1), A Blu'»-Print for rnwirorsental Education in India.

thft States in InJla v*-3 realized tt- isps-^rc* 6f e'virS’i-
c^ctal echKstiSD in its real pneTBpectis*. T^is ray tecass® »/
tt»=> psllctisn ji-’ibleEs faced ty tt* State« that it has t*

train ita fjrtcr* e3.tia*r« w^s vill "wip zasictaic ts© devel tp " e rt
5f tiy* State withsst es^letely di s t a rbirg its a'»7iratr»ct. By
keepiDg t:us 5t:jftct2's« in =in3 Gtijarst tss aZready sad® a gs-sd
fcegirrSng in ervira'cerpal ©dasetisa, ard enrirsii :tal trEiinrjj
^g-g graje© fST testters thted' it f ee ds fert.’v**’ redificstitn anS
siphisticatisr. ? S "t u osteXy fsr Oa^arst a va-y derelspsd

acaJe^c erd recearc*" Infrastr-actcr** eeista as a scpplerectary
fBcti' fc^ eTTirszreiSal ©disatasn. pj^rer, sa vs tare st^^sted
atpve, t^frr© w© «S:;aJ> rrt prtsrsares fsr tersters trainsr^ tst>
at p’^ee’^es and in-service levels » hive tp prepare s Jfatas-
lal Psliay «n Srvir-iastoJ Sdpsatiso ani acss-ditii^ly »«e Jiare ts
prepare cxrss pptllnes fsr e'nirsrrental tees'‘j»-s trairit^ p-a?-
rarre.

Tbtia, ve ha-.*e tc ^ a Istg vsy in ecticvir;? osr stoftctlves
in SevarSTT^tiial Sdscatisn cU *>»*ce t»ssl<era traiciry? io eufi^
rsmzrtsi edssatiss al«s.

■'£dosati«n thrsc^ Erwirsrreet efd SnslTSTett fsr SdnpstisBi*.

ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN KASiaAND DEVaOPMENT

Kiran Dessi *

INTRO) UCTION

In a sense 'wasteland* la a mianomer. The land which this
term indicates is in fact 'wasted land* — wasted thrsu^ esreruaej
disuse or nisusei through deforestation or because technology to
utilise the latd la not available where it is needed. Since
'wasted land' does not sound as fluent as 'wastelaid't especially
in conjunction with other terms such aa ‘development** 'centre',
'council' and so on, we may continue to use the mianomer waste-
land without causing any substatial uidesirable change in what
this land means to us. However, the difference in the connotation
of the two terms may be very important in so far as that differ-
ence shaped our attitude and action in regard to lard. Wasteland
spells hopelessness, wasted land holds out a prmse. one of the
■hajor goals of eonmuRication in the development of wasteland is
to disentangle promise from pesaifflism.

The estimates of wastelands may not approxinat* those of
wasted lands, for the latter will elso include those millions of
little pieces of land which millions of farmers till with under-
standable resignation to the worth of the harvests* they till the
land not because it makes economic sense to do so, but because
they have the little piece of land. In any case there are no
reliable data available for this peculiar but more widespread
phenomenon than we would like to believe. Wastelands in India
have been estimated at an emnnous 300 million ha. This is of
the total landmass of the country and three times the land under
forest. In Gujarat where salinity and alkalinity as well as wind
and water erosion have affected large tracts of land, wasteland
is estimated at over 7 million ha. Wasteland, therefore, accounts
for about 36t of the total area of Gujarat. The estimate includes
5 million ha of denuded hills and other forest land. The estimate
of wasteland in Gujarat seems to closely approximate wasted land
because it includes degraded land which goes under cultivation as
well as denuded forest land. To be sure, the latter is under-
estimated at 5 million ha. Who has not been disappointed to see
what officially goes by the name of forestsT The phrase dense
forest 18 fast becoming an archaic term.

The true import of the existence of wasteland is realised
when one is reminded - and we need a reminder more often than one

•Centre for Environmental Education, Ahoedabad S4, India

271

wsuld Busp«t- that vastedjand exacts sn the taidst of laroe scale
mral poverty. Indeed, it ie in the light of. or, rare correctly,
in the shadow Of the millaom cf poor villagers that wastelanl
can asscne the long overdue title of ‘cur national resource' . The
task of vaateiand developtnent can be broadly defined as one of
bringing together for frutual benefit our great huMn resource and
our last wasteland resource. In no other ease perhpas is the
clich c ore appropriate that it is easier said than dom. Only a
little aralysis will show that wasteland daveloprent effort holds
twin pranises om of relative abundance and one of a disaster.
The latter will cooe true or mercifully will fail to come true
depending on HOW these two great resources are broucnt tooether.
In any broad conxcunication strategy or in ore that is specific to
an area, is irplieit a faith that we are all conscious of the
critical place of the of the pr-cess of the two great resour-
ces, both at the battore of developrent, coraro tooether.

WASTE-XSO OEVn-OPyrn

Though dei-elocnent of wasteland can presurably ta)ce nary
fores, almost all will *er*^ that afforestation of wasteland is
the most preferred fom cf its developrent, at ary rata given the
nature ard problers cf this lend. An irocuous and aee^ngly
slrpla question, asked with readirmss to receive the answer vith>
out bias, can give enough leads to the corr-unieater to perceive
his role clearly* The question is 'why did people ret crow trees
on westelands in the past^ The arswers are cary, none of then by
Itself adequate, all of then cut tooether, howe.er. largely araver
the question, especially if pot tooether to create a sceiwu-io.
Trees were rarely, if e\-er, seen as an agricultural crop. Tree
growing was Nature's work. Tree felling ard selling was forest
departsent's work. Tree growing takes years, while other agricul-
tural crops are annual or even half yearly. The econocy of the
rural poor is strictly oeared to yearly considerations- ronsoon
to rorsoon. the raingod r-akes his appearance. How do you grow
trees? How do you grow them fast"* Nhat trees'* >>^086 land do you
grow then on"* The private wasteland is literally irpereeptibJ e lu
cof=parleon with public wasteland. If forests belonced to covern-
rent, privately grown trees would be suspected, when and if they
reached the market, as illicitly cut trees. There was ro iporey
available to carry the farmer thrsu^ four or five years in rare
eases, ten to fifteen years in irost cases that it would take the
trees to taature for harvest. Already too rary factors to discour-
age even a rich individual farjrer. For the poor farrer the first
two or three answers, probably, were enouoh to perpetually keep
Vandevi (the forest coddess) from appearing even in his reddest
drears.

272

The Missing Llric

Here are then the problems of afforestation of wasteland:
Attitudinal) ownership, technological, organisational, financial.
The coRTWRicator has a vital role to play In all these spheres*
Information is available but ?»t at the right place; goverment
IS ready at the top level but the eagerness necessary in a task
like this is lacking at the lower level: goverrment schemes for
financial backup and. in some cases, even for lanS ownership
rearrangement exist but rarely reach the rural mass, cooperatives
have succeeded in some cases, failed in many cases, yet a tree
growers' cooperative seeas to be the best bet to overcome the
hurdles, techrological, financial and relating to market; these
riddles are well nigh iirpossible for individual, isolated farmers
to resolve. Eut how is a cooperative formed? hbat is meant by
bye-laws of a cooperative? Khat are the steps involved in forrrdng
a cooperative? Of course, one is talking about a cooperative of
the small farmers, of the lanlless, Pimncial institutions such
as cooperative bardcs, nationaliaed barJcs and the goverment are
ready to help resolve the financial riddles. But they have their
own rules and regulations, a system tdtose strength based on money
IS made ineffective with 'tfs* and 'buts'. The statements of the
neds of the poor are simple, devoid of ’ifs' and ‘buts'. Who will
take these simple statements to the aireonditiored rooms of the
financial managers? Who will tell them that poverty breeds its
own accounting principles and practices? Survival of the per
depends on pronotion of trust; survival of the accountant depends
on the prevention of bad trust. The two are like two travellers
going in opposite directions to reach the same spot. Who can tell
them, and how, that both can become fellow travellers without
giving up their apparently different but in reality the same,
desti ration?

Cccimnication Strategy

Quite a cai'plex scenario indeed. Sut it also throws light on
sone elements which should form an effective eo nre u ideation stra-
tegy etdiich is necessary but certainly not sufficient to ensure
that the fruits of wasteland development go directly to the rural
landless labourers and the small farmero. Below are enumerated
these elements.

1. Wasteland development must become a mass movement. To that
etd a gereral atecspheTe will have ho be created for it. 'She
urcmtcy with which afforestation work onist be undertaken also
determines its scale. Fuelwood and fodder situation is criti-
cal. Erosion is widespread. Damage throu^ floods is increas-
ing every year. If the scale on trttieh afforestation is under-
taken IS not large enou^ the gains will be quickly offset by
the mounting anmal losses.

273

2. The audience for the coonunication will be a mi}<ed
or»* the rural poor including the lanilees labourers, email
an3 marginal fanners, by far the largest an! most important;
the technical and research institutions and experts working
in the fields financial institutions; concerned governnent
departments and their functlonarieB from highest to the lower
noet level} the mmeroue voluntary organisations and groups
ireludinq those of envirormentaliatsi legislators.

3. Contioious information flow from technical, management
research institutions to hCOs, field workers atd farmers.
Continuous feedback from the field to research institutions.

4. Two way information flow between financial inetitutione on
one hand and NGOs, field workers ard farmers on the other.

5. TWO way Infomation flow between goverment and those
engaged m afferescatlon programne at the field level.

6. Organiaino the tree growers. If, for instance, the form
chosen is a cooperative, then all information pertaining to
the formation of a cooperative to the farmers and voluntary
organisatiom promoting such cooperatives, information about
problems faced at local level to the hioher ups in the coope-
rative depactnent.

1, Trairdng of fanners in rursery raising, plantation, spe-
cies selection, protection, water harvestirvg, low cost land
de^'eLap(nent methods, etc. Trainina field workers and the
trainers. Oevelopment of training material,

6, Intensive documentation of field experiences and widely
esiTrrunicating then.

£). Demonstration whenever possible. Taking fanrers to see for
thenselvoe successful tree plantations.

These elements in all probability ere the most important
ones which should be borne in mini while working out a coinminica-
tlon strategy, humerous voluntary organisations engaged in rural
developnent work are certain to be the key link ib afforestation
prograrmes. They have crass root level contacts; they have influ-
ence over the rural poor, they ha\e a measure pf infrastructure
which can be used with advantace; they can organise the rural
poor; they can also become the links between Che sources where
expertise and finances exist and the people who reed them.

CWrrvnioadiOH ftas been a mgfecCecf field in oxic rural deve-
lopment effort so far. It is heartening to rote that the aware-
naes about developing our wastelanls has come about when an
equally clear awareness about the need far rlcht and adequate
cernnunication is also seen all around.

A firal word of caution. The role of coortunication in waste-
land development effort is without doubt of vital importarere. At
the same tirrc the nature of comtunication at least in the initial
staoes will be experimental. We will haw to be extremely careful
that we do not adversely affect, in this experiment, the vast
possibilities thrown up by this unique developirent effort.

INTEGRATION OF ECOSYSTEM AND URBAN SYSTEMS:
AN ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING APPROACH

INTOOOUCTION

Thsuoh efforts were r>»de to unSerstsnd th» evolutionary
process of urban systen and ecoloaical systems in isolation, com-
parati\ely less efforts were made to understand the similarity Of
the process of evolution between these two systems. It is inter-
esting that in the process of the evolution of urban system and
ecosystem almost a Similar pattern is observed, howe\er with an
exception that the urbrn systen lacks the self maintainlnq capa-
city (homeostatic mechanism) unlike that of the ecosystem If th»
urban system also ha^e this capability then the enviroiwental
problems in the urban system would have been minitpum However, to
a certain extent this capability can b* created within the urban
systsm throutii emirotrwntal plennino (a pro^s in which archi-
tects planners and Economists will have a iris^or say) ard for
that we ahould know the similarities ard dissimilarities of both
the systems in a detailed fashion

Similarities Between the Evolution of
Ecosystem ard trban System

In a ratural ecosystem

1 All the organisms end physical enviromept are interdependent
ard related to one another ard actiMty of one element affects
the other

2 The evolution taVe place in a sirrple pattern ard procress
towards a complex ard dtirersiif led pattern,

3 Changes in one comporv^nt affect the other comporert,

4 As evolution procresses the systems b e co me mature ard attain
self mairtainir)g capability (homeostatic irechaniBrn) ,

5 Stability of the system is maintaired throuch recycling/cycl-
ing of eompotents ard nutrients These are the main laws of
the evolution of ecosystem, thouUh tnany trore futt:*-ions/lew8
can also be observed

Sow let us exariTv* how the urban systems evolve ard traintaln
themeelves In developino urban eystems where industrial activity
IS the motor of developrent, the d-velopfrent/evolution beoirs
with a elnole system and orsdually it di^velops into a eo-rplex

•Centre for Environmental Planning and rechnoJoyy,

School of Planning, Hhmedabad, India

276

Rsle of EtTvirenm^ntal Planning

New let us enquire whether It is possible to create a self
sustaimng ability within the urban eyetem and thereby
maintaining stability of the total system (both eessystem arri
tirban system) through envlromental planning. This can be done,
w<» are able to idantlgfy the ttermlnal points of relationships of
urban system and the ir^charasni/process of accumulation and the
effects of by-proawets/waste* That 1* ,

(a) how the marufaeturlna activity create and accunulate wastes
and how the waste interact with other systems.

(b) how the consumption activity create and accumulate wastes and
how the wastes interact with other systems: and

(c) how service activities and infraatructural activities create
wastes and interact with other system, etc hhen we analyse
this problem we will know about the origin (the linkage/
termir^l points) . process of interaction (how it affects the
other elenierts) , its different character and manifestations.

Onoe this la done, we will be able to identify the resource
value and nuisance value of waste from each terminal point. V.'hen
we will be able to determine the resource value (throu^ recycl-
ing) we will be in a position to find ways to make the urban sys-
tem absorb that byproduct and thereby help Increase the stability
of the system Again, when we will be able to determine the ml-
sanee value of th* by-product of the urban system, then we will
be in a position to make arranoements to avoid the interaction of
the byproducts with other elements in the system which again help
increase the stability of the urban system

To make this corcept nore clear, let us take the example of
an urban system An urban system operates within the ecosystem
and both the systems are related inverteratly. As we did explain
above in an evolving urban system there are three main subsystem
which create unabsorbabie by-products/waste within the system.
They are

a Marufacturing (production)
b consumption, and

c Infraotxuctwiral activities (construction of roads, buildings,
cocsTuracatton networks and transportation) .

Let ue analyse how manufacturing activity (production)
create waste and interact with other systems. Different manufac-
turing proc-flses in an urban system create many types of gaseous,
liquid and solid pollutants Khen the caseous pollutants mainly
pollute air, the liquid pollutants toxtcate lard, surface e«3
groundwater, and solid jiollotants (solid waste) mainly pollute
land and water (many of these toxicants are biologically nor^
degradable) The pollutants thus entered into the urban ecosystem
throucdi different linkaoe points (air, land, curfaee water and
groundwater) now enter into the metabolic system of human, animal

277

airi plant ayetarrs. Kan c^ta raxism tsxicarts as tha tsxjcacta
accwrulatad in tha ansals anS plant* alsa cpt Irta nan's r»»tat>3-
Jlc system thrwi* chain s»^Kaei»~ ard create diesi-eers,

v'-en air ard water pallLticn create differert types sf disease 1ft
ran ard arinal . in plants they result in sigtaficant red’.rtlPD cf
prsdofftlsn and t>ts the r*s5crc» renewsblJsty preness withlD the
ecssystM la »'Mta\ely affected ts a eeater extent

ictar^ble. the cuisacce value Iquartificatacn sf mcatl\*e exter-
Talities) of all these irteraotisis can te quartified.

!.pw to reit-se/av5ifl the resative ii^te'-antiorf of th^se fcy-
pr o d acta etd the Bi^sequ^rt diss^^r* on rian, anmal atd plants,
these by- p T od vots can be transform^ into cs^ful resources (as
the vastes/pollutarta are usnarcoed ress’jrces) An i^ban systea,
as we hj^TS stated above, create vaBta/p3lli.tarts throu2?r its
different ecoretoie activities elite p* aA -ntisn, consmtJtlsn an3
service actiMties) All these waste/psllctant* car recycled
an3 corverted into resource* (both reerwabJe arri aon-rewi/ftble).
yecycliog of ary pollutant is ha-,tii» double advartaw i e. when
we recycle a pollutant, we will able ts recos'B'- rr^'e resources
(tha*ehy add to resource stock ani less de-ard on vtri^ln resoar-
c«8 particularly ron-remwable resources like eetal end cin>— els)
on tb» hard, ard reduce the proce** -f romrerewobllaty aoearirq
assna rerevable resr-ffses (like reta'datlon of plant growth due
to air anj water pollotlon) base and thereby, aoain, add to
r e asuoe stash. Thus, recycling will becsee a balancano fastsr
between iffhan systere and e-osyster aid if th* entire waste ema-
ted by an urban syetas is recycled, th* irtesration between tarban
systeo and ecosysteo becore ccrplece and t-he quantification of
by-p r od u ct* tec u -e feasible.

These are sore sf the slcro level il.e, Id^rtifyifto th- ar&a
and Irteractioo of essh eJecsert* and suh-systacs in the ^zban
systecl en iromertal tools ih-lch v* can depj-y. Through this
app tu ach, as B‘“own abo\-», we vill be in a position to quantify
different by-pea*;~*s of the urtsan systes (like air polluition,
water pollution aid solid waste) and also the process of diffu-
sion ard irtc-actlon. Cnie-standing of these aspects will pa%-e
the way for echic*/irx3 the 'socce-species cctiMty eqvilibrlic:*
/i.e.. ri? ^ ebjt ActJraty be ffisfasTiehtf.y, am %*3gt

will be the intercity and »-5w ruch Mean end other pcpalatlon it
can suroent, and what will be th* sostairahle resource it can
create to suppor t the eysteso and what wil fc- the ictejsjty and
the aprocess of by-prodoots/weste created ard how these elecects
are Irterautins in a c o p^ e ^ensive anS ictetrated fasMonK

Intaeretad Er—ircirectal Approach

As we hax-e explained above though both the syste-s evolve
separately, they follow eap- sort of siidler pattern anJ also
“ffc'rt eeph other; because the urban systs-s evolves Itself in

278

space' (i.e within the eessyetem) and that is why achieving the
Bpace-species-actlvlty equilibrium' Is the key factor In achiev-
ing the harmony between urban systeni and ecoayatem. Besides using
the micro eTwirOTTrental toolB/t*«holque8 we have aho'wn above, a
package programme of macro envlronnental techniques are to be
deployed to obtain harmony, between ecosystem and urban system.
These are (a) Space-species approach, and (b) space-activity
approach

(a) Space-Specles Approach

Space-species equlllbriuni explains that what will be the
equillbirum relationships between the different species (vegeta-
tion ard animals including man) and a given space, what will be
the optimum level of the population of vegetative specis (trees,
grass and other cultivation) and animal specl-s (including man)
and how both the systems can survive in a mutually benefiting
fashion (posltlva eyrrbiotie relationship). That is, how vegeta-
tion helps animals (Including men) to survive and animals help
vegetation to survive (vegetation provides food ard shelter to
animals including man, how animals enrich the toil system for the
survival of trees and grass through its excreta ard dscompositlon
Of body and how man help Inerese the grass and trees). To achieve
this, the vegetation productivity (biemsts productivity) of the
space has to be determined firet and then calculate how much
animal population including man can survive on that system in an
optimum fashion. If once that is dene, then the space-resource-
Bpeclea equilibrium can be achieved. Here, the change In popula-
tion of animals and man has to be adjusted with the biomass
productivity (resources)' otlterwlse the system may tend towards
disequilibrium (with man in the top of the food chain pyramid and
animals in the next ladder).

Further, any artificial inducement to create a productivity
enhancement (mechanisation and all other factors introduced by
man) in any system will create disequilibrium. For example, when
we introduce mechanisation In agriculture, soil health is deteri-
orated (due to deep tillage and fertilizers and pesticide pollu-
tion) and as a result the biomass production is reduced which
directly affects the dependent species negatively and thereby
create a disequilibrium In the eysten. Another dlsegullibrlum
impetus will be initiated from the by-products of synthetic
'pso&ictfi ivftsc&iscei Wie vyeltmi. hgaiij, TtoVt pi 'the toTi-

blodegradable synthetic waste neatlvely affect the zoological and
botanical species and thereby cause Illness and reduction in
productivity For example, the synthetic waste remain within the
ecosystem for many years and negatively interact with the metabo-
lic system (Including the genetic system) of plants and animals
and thereby cause drastic reduction In productivity) (arri also
cause changes in the conuiunity aid the food chain relationships)

280

bath resburce-F^pulstion «giillifaritsn ard resaxirea renefcability
(attributed to effluents/pollutanta eftfritted from hi^ techrolocy
iwtlved iti p'^oduction proeesaesJ procese is avoided. Roain, as
we postulated earlier, the effect of ecaroaae policies atii cottsu*.
ner behaviour affect the apace activity approach. The Gatdhian
approach to consuipptlan is also relevant to the concept. That is,
a consusption patttern/behavlour should be within the corrpatible
limits of resource availability within a recion (o’* a simple
constrnption pattern which will suit to both resource availability
and ecosystem balance) Hence, it* the space activity approach the
Gardhian approac* (Ecormie Policies) can play a major role.

COMCLDSION

Thus, thouctfi we have e*cplained a theoretical frarieworjc for
inte^ating ecosystem with the urban system (after identifyinc
the similarities ard dissimilarities) which have carplete appli-
cability only on a ‘Virgin space', aid Its full urpleaiertatier is
Bll^tly difficult the manner it* which we have eiqMained above.
However, it can partially be applied to solve the existing envi-
remental problefa. ror example in an urban system with a space-
species diaeguilibriun, particularly with regard to vegetation,
this approach will be useful, tltewise, to control the activity
pattern eoaio this can be applied to the existing systems so as
to achieve space-activity eguilibrlun*.

However, one important thing to be remembered here is the
iiTvolvecnent of experts from many diffierent fields/disciplires.
For instance in the process of the in^lanentation of the space-
activity approach orUy an architect can decids/urderstard how the
built structures should be erected in that given space so that
aesthetic hartnory can be elchieved between the urban sysCen ard
ecosystem. Apain ^en the question of aucmentatien of veoetation
comes in Che procese of ImplefneRtatlen of space-species-approaeh
a botanist/agricultural scientist has to decide about the harmo-
nious eoebination of veoetation with space aid built structure s .
To decide about the activity pattern of irdustries, only the
engineers sRj economists can sugoest a harmonious eocnbiiiatiDn.
Fitttlly when the question of intgration of different elements
comes. It is the envi i e n nen t al planner who can give the answers.

Thus, it can be sminarized that the evolution of urban sys-
tems aid ecosystems is almost on ttio same pattern except that the
urban systems lack the self-maintaaning ability due to their
inherent failure to absorb the byproducts/waste within. However,
this ability can be inculcated to a certain extent in the urban
system throu^ different environoental planning approachos/teeh-
niques (ard to achieve that a new breed of environoental planrers
ard admirustrators having multi-disciplinary talents and utder-
atarding have to be created to shoulder that responsibility).

282

The above does not emphasise the practical appllcatio*i of
the subieet. In our opinion there should be thorough practleals
or proiects for identifyi-« the ecolocical imbalance of the envl-
roj»r>cnt. TVic students be trained in aaalyainff polluted aanples
and remedial measures to be suK^ested for the protection of the
e nvi ro nne nt .

We feel that there should be separate post-eraduate ctnirses
in e ro nno nta 1 manatrement. The otJalification for the course
must be wide open to all the irraduates of natural sciences,

K3DFL SYLLABTI FOR FNVIRONMFNTAL ENGINFERING COURSE

Air Quality, water Quality, toxic substances and environnen-
tal health, rrunieipal solid wastes, enercry, natural resources,
ecoloey and biotic resources, Wastal ecolopy, Himaa settlement
and lanriuse noise pollution, enyironrental reeulations, plobat
enyironnent, economies.

Apart frc«n the above aspects there should he soine practical
excereiaes as necessary.

From the above sturtv the fciDovine guidelines may he consi-
dered for the framine up of a post-irraduate course in cwironren-
tal education

1. There should be a separate rtepartm«»nt pf environnent in the
tmveraities for providinf a post-eradiiate course and also rese-
arch facilities Trust be nede available to tackle the environ-
mental problems.

2. Every district rrunt be provided with an environmental cell to
identify the problems of tie reeion.

J. The envirotnental cell may comninicate with the comron man
about the hazards of disturbine the enviroiront.

k. In order to protect the envirosnent the post-eraduate course
IS a nust in the Universities of India,

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION FOR
MINING ENGINEERS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

S.P. Banerjee and G.S. fen>aha*

DmtODOCTTOiJ

Mining ia a hazardaua p^fassiaa and avary yaar many ndnara
leaa thalr llvaa thrmi^ atrata falls, axplosioas. imndatlons.
rockbursts aisl othar aceldaoea la mloas. Mining oparatlona can
alas rasult In haaardoua situations for tha gaaaral public as
wall and can causa grava damsga to tha surrounding aavdroimaat.
Ia tha past, irdotng tnglaatrs hava not paid nuch attaotlon tc tha
prutaetlon of arvlromiant. art growing public cancara for anvl-
roimantal pretaetlen has foread tha gavaraoants of most advancad
couotrlaa to fonrulata atrlngant laglslatisa In thla ragsrd. In
tha davaloping countrias. appropriata tachmloglas hava to ba
found which will kaap tha atvlromtantal daraaga dua to mlniQg to a
ndalfFum but at an aecaptabla cost.

Is tha past, atbriroimazrtal protaetloa has not found place ia
tha curricula of ndaliig angloaarisg courses. Iha currant vrphesis
on tha subject has Mcassltatsd tha iotreductioa ef thla topic at
tha uadargraduata laval for ganaral appraclation, as wall as tha
davalopmaBt of poatgraduata eoursas oa tha subjaet for trainlag
specialists, tha purpose of this paper is to discuss tha topics
which should ba included io tha syllabil for undargradusta and
postgraduate eoursas on Cnvirotnantal A^otactloa la HlMag Araas.

Hazards to Gaoaral Public and Barlroonastal Damage

tha hazard to tha ganaral public from accidantal falluras In
an lirJustrial plant or facilltias was dranatically hlghll|litad by
tha catastrophic methyl Isocyamta leak ia tha pastielda plant at
Ehopal on tha inght of 2 Dacenibar 1984. killing more than two
thousand paopla. tha health of several thousand parsons my ba
panmosatly lirpalrad. Similar dlsastars of a snellar scale,
Ini’Slving gwnanrl iir areas aa
wall. One can clta tha 1966 case of Abarfan tip slide in South
Vales and the 1972 Suffala creek dam failure in USA. As recently
as July August 1984. working of tha huge OK-Tadi gold mlaa in
Papua-New Guinea had to be suspaodad dua to leakage of toxic
ssdiun cyanide in the aaartiy Ck-tbi rdver. Llmastona mining la
tha Garhwal Himalayas has bean suspended under tha orders ef
Indian SAjprama Court because of tha possibility of anvironnaatal
damage by such mining.

*P«pC of Hining Enqineeria^ Indian Sehonl of Chanted

286

grwth, Bdaing erd wrld tairty r»quirar«st8. fossil

fusl8, pollntloa and sasrsy** *tc., ths eptloml csurss ea

"Kiasral ProAictloa aad tha Earfronnaat" csvara topics oa aa/1-
roaaaatal irpact of isiMa;, wasta utlllzatioa, raclanatloa aad
laglalativa csacapts.

Structura of a 6 S. Kaidroa^atal Eajloaarlas ProKrama

tha Kiddla East TachMcal Ualvarsity la Aakara (TXa-kay)
sffars a 4-yaar B.S. <2ap-aa ia Eaidroaoaatal Eazlaaarla^ slaea
1973- This ia rathar uaeorroa. Tha awiroa^atal subjacts may ba
broadly prsupad urrlar tva haads of Eivlroa-^atal Seiaacas (Earl-
raa^aatal Kieroblolofy aad Eanroa^atal Qiarrlstry), aad Eav'iroa-
roaatal Tachaaiogy (Watar, Air aad Laad Pollutloa Coatral) aad tha
a'^tiasis la tha loatiiata prap- a. -r^s imy ba plvaa oa althar of tha
jxoups dapaadaajr ps’l nar lly oa vhathar tha csursa is offarrad by
aa appliad sciaaca faculty or aa aairiaaariax faculty.

ccrcuKio\s

Eai^oasaatal Easlaaorlas a<ltcatloa la raay ualvarsitlas has
startad as aa sffdioot of civil aaoaaarias dapartnaats. Hovavar
vhtra tha aaad of aa ladjstry xs esra spaclfle. as la idalas. xt
would ba battar to fomilata saparata aad spaclfle prop-amaa.
Sana usxvarsltlas abroad have already iatroduead full uadar^radu-
ata eoursas la E9>aro3oaatal Eanaaarlar but wa faal that tha
iatar-diselpliary aatura of tha subject eaa ba battar covered ia
a postpvdiata prSframa. lhara is alao a aaad for ahort>tarra
lattistry-orlaatad eoursas for ia-sarvlea people who did aot baaa-
fit frsra such courses asrllr-.

KETEICNCES

Baaa'-jaa, A. N. 1982. ET/lroa-iaatal Ksaapasaat ia Coal Rasoxirca
Davalspnaat. IVoc. Satioasl Sadaar oa Kxaarals aad Ecoloiry.
ladlaa School of Klaas, Ctia^Md.

Mahaadru, R.G. 1985. Coal- tha The Tachaolo?y Ertva. HSMI Prasi-
daatlal addeana, Calcutta.

Baaarjaa. S.P. aad G.S, Harwshs. 1984. Ea</iro3oaatal eoasldara-
tioB la cxploltatioa of daaral rasourcas with special raf-
sraaoa to tha coaditloas ta LDCs. Pspar to XII World Klalag
Coazrass, Sa-> tlalhi.

288

plan

plinth area /unit 20 Om^

Fig- 1. HOUSE FOR RURAL LANDLESS

289

IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Fiz. 2.

290

Inadi=<!uacy of accorrenodation for th»* family arrf overcrowdii a a-e
th«»ref»r® e\id=-nt In maty cas<»s ♦’o*- vant sf a separate kitc>en
cooking fires in the living room fill the house with smoke

The areas surrourriing the houses are often polluted ow na to
lack of adequate drainaoe and sanitation Latrirrs are either not
built or are insanitary and inadequate to serve the nunber o'
people that use them Potable water supply is oen»rally not
available and water for drinkina la obtained from wells ponds
rivers streams etc which are often polluted or are exposed to
the risks of pollution

Viith few exceptions rural villaoes have not been planned
Their layout is Generally haphazard or disorderly The lillaoees
are mostly conoested with narrow windino lanes which becorne
muddy and slushy particularly du** no the rains The v llages and
reighbouring towns are also n«t properly connected with oood
roads far Inter-coniiuracat on and this nhibits their economic
and social deielopmen*-

«ev»ral reports and observations have referred to the poor
conditions of rural housirq as being the most important cause of
poor health of inhabitan*® in rural areas A number of surveys
have also revealed that the vast majority of rural households in
the developinc court-jes subs st with only the barest minimum of
or often without essential hvus no services and facilities

Environmental Education Throueh Demorstration Prefects

The NBO is encaged in pr-motino improvement In rural housing
and environrental conditions Twelve Rural Housing Wings of NBO
have also been established in the country for research training
and extension in rural housing and villa^* planning These Wings
are located at Chaniigarh Oarcalore V V Nagar Howrah Jodhpur
Sriragar Trivandrum Varamsi Ranchi Simla Madras and Gauhati

NBO is impler'entiog a scheme for construction of clusters of
demonstration low cost houses alona with items of environnental
improvement So far 73 cluster demonstration housing projects
have been taken up in selected villaoes in different geo-climatic
reoions with varying socio-ecorrmic conditions as shown in the
map of India

in eac^ cluster demonstration hsusino project a set Of 20
houses caterino to the needs of econwnically weaker sections Of
the society a’-e put up at lowest possible cost making improved
use pf Jpcjs] ax>d ^ej/ .beJ^ Av 3 plC't ff-f S'S' .w /Jf'i'

sq yards) a house is pout up to provide minimum accommodation In
a plinth area of 20 to 25 sq m comprising of atleast OT» living
roo-n sepa'-at^‘ kitchen airi an a verandah (Fig 1) An additional
room can be constructed fo*- future requirement

A separate built xn sanitary latriiK and a bathlnq place are
also provided in the house at the rear backyard where a cattle-
shed can also be put up There as a front yard for meeting the

291

fandly n»eds of rural occupartB

I[np^©^ed used of local materiale is irade» for building more
durable houses The aspects related tp protection of houses in
areas prom* to floods earthguahes cycloi>«s etc are also oiven
due attention The cost of each house is not to exceed Rs 5000
in all parts of the country except hi<^ altitude hilly regions
where the cost can be Rs 'JSOO Alongwith more durable house.
Items of enviroimental Improveinent such as provision of smokeless
ehulah sanitary latrine drainaoe bathing place arran^ment of
water supply pavino of streets ©••derly layout of houses to
achieve a deraity of 60 hous“s per hectare with provision of open
spaces community hall biooas plant plantation of trees etc >
IS also made in each cluster denoiMtration housing project

With the technical cuidance of NBO and assistance rendered
by the ReQional Bia'al llousino Winas of NBO large scale rural
housing schenes he\e beer taken up in many states m the country
such as ?S 000 houses in the state of pur);jab 5000 houses in each
distract of Assam S4 OOO houses an ftajasihan 75 000 houses In
Ke-ala and 65.000 houses in Andhra Pradesh

IMPACT Cf EMVlBO\MPNTAL EDUCATION

As has been stated earlier the cluster oemonntratien houairo
scheme 18 intended tomotivate the rural people in impre\ina their
built envirorr>»nt The p-omotion of informal education of the
rural people is therefore the mam phgectixe of scheme jn
this paper the impact of the cluster degonstratisn housing scheme
has been briefly hiohliohted indicating tV important praeCieal
gains achieved. Ch* lessons learnt and aupporting measures that
are required to propaoatc housing and eiaironrental impro\e~iert
in rural arteas have also been identif.ed Although informal
surveys, studies and interviews have been made by ^DO erd Rfr^s to
assecB the impact of cluster demonstration housing projects in
improving the built emironwrt, it Is rather difficult to make a
proper assessment of the impact because of several technical,
social and economical factors that ar» involved such a*" the rievj
concepts which brine about a change in life gf rural
people tradition bound nature gf the Mllaoers which is d“ep
rooted jj> beJJe/^ custsws, rituals etc , a poverty af the rpral
population and coirparatlvely Jjioh coBt of eonsteuction of houses
and provision of essential services for enviroiT«>ntal improvement
which are much beyond their affordable limite etc ’^h" process
of en^ironrental education through cluster derons'-rat on hovihes
has cep’-ated (Fia 2)

i) Awar‘*tpss abovit the innovative techniques of eors>*’ruet on
of houKep at low cost making urproved us« of ]oe»l traterialc and
=elf-beip and for eiMrcmental improvement in atd around th“
d.«el lines

-,i) Pa-ticipation of the beneficiane's in imrlerrentetion of

292

the* inncxations in fT>**^ting th»*ir hausina er*3 eivir3tD»ri*'al ne^ds

iii) Prspe*r u>5«‘ sf the facilities provid«»d and their up ke^p
and irainterwnce ,

i\) Skill fomatlon thr3U<* developing knov>-hpv. aid parti-
cipation ir the. construction works

vi) Traihino of artisans who had been employed for adoption
of innovative use of materials and techniques

vi) Feed back of exF)erlences in the use of dwellinos and
the essential eerMces for erMronn'ental improvement.

Practical Gains

As has been found from actual observations, the followiro
positive cams have been achieved throurfi the cluster demonstra-
tion housinc projects -

i) Tidy appearances of the housina cluster put up

ii) Improved sanitation in and around the houses

iii) Availability of water supply

iv) More double houses

v) More liveable and comfortable dviellinos

vi) Better quality of enviroritient

In-depth studies are required to ascertain th» extent of
praetieal gains achieved over a period of time from the cluster
demerstracion housing projects.

Lessens Learnt

The survey and studies undertaken have broueht fo'^th several
lessons that can be learnt in educating the rural people in the
improvement of housing and enviromental conditions throueh clus-
ter demonstration housing projects. These include

i) Changes in life-style is creately dependent on social
and cultviral background of local people which should be oiven due
cconslderation.

ii) Slow-Chance is due to slow absorption of new ideas on
account ofsocial, economical and cultural factors.

Hi) Extent of acceptance is dependent on life style of the
rural epople, the level of technology souahtto be introduced and
the cost of conctruction to be incurred etc.

iv) Actual adoption of technique is dependent on the ability
of rural people, techniqvies, new ideas and to put up in practice.

v) Proper use is dependent on the know-how acquired and
the techniques of pcroper up-keep ard the maintenance of
facilities and disadvantaoes of new facilities provided.

Supporting Measures Required

In order to propogate the practical gains achieved and to
account for lessons learnt in tt»e cluster demonstration housing

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OP INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN SETUP
ON TRIBAL WOMEN OF BIHAR AND H P.

Anira '^hrivastaxa* and G P S*irivasta\a**

INTTICOUCTION

In 9f the rubHc meetjrts at Bhuwareshwaar Orissa in
197S our late Prime Minister Mrs Cardhi said that she deeply
feels that she was a tribal oirl in her previous birth Althouch
no body could e\er Vnow eonvincincly about his or her previous
incarnation yet it seems quite locical that probably her cuess
was correct Her deep attachmen*’ to dense forests and moun'-ains
her love for »nature her affection for wild animals her open and
larce heartedness her simplicity intense confidence unflirch-
ino behaviour under ad\erse and unfavourable conditions capacity
far hard work matchless enerey to bear with the bodily and
mental sufferincs and her eacerr^ss to face the danaoers by
keepino herself in *he forefront were sane of her outstafdino
qualities which testify her claim about her previous birth

Tn this phenomenal world every behaviour of human beines
cannot be analysed simply cenetically Mrs Gandhi may be rici't
in her claim which is witnessed in her deep concern and love fo»‘
the tribals Her last public visit use to tribal population
dominated Orissa "^tate Ourino this trip she spent most of her
time in the tribal areas Ourinc one of her public mee^inca at
Amarkote Orissa she spotted out a croup of Korda tribal cirls
amidst a huen public ostherino At the erd o* her public address
she silently made her way towards this tribal croup ard felt
extremely relaxed by puttino her hand over the shoulders of the
surprised tribal carls She started talkinc to them to which the
Q.rls responded in their own lanouat^ The lanoiace- woo only an
apparent barrier betw’een them as they knew not each other s
lancuaoe yet the lorxuace difficulty seemed to melt very soon
because of the behaviour of equality which instantaneously cene
rated rapport amono them The entire population of million

tribals of India were so mcuh attached to Mrs Indira Gandhi that
in her death they have lost every thine If by her death they
feel that they are totally ruined ard exploited it is simply
because she belonced to the tribals from the core of her senti-
ments and the tribals in turn cave themselves uo into her keepino
as her beloneancs

The aforesaid prelude is cjuite in tune with the theme of
this paper as no other example than the personality of Mrs
Gandhi could have depietcxS so nicely and vividly the characteris
tic features of Indian tribal women

•Dept of Anthropology Tata Coileye Chaihasa Bihar
••School of Environmental Bielogv APS University Pewa

295

Tribes of Jt.P. std Eihar anS Thexr Drstributjsn

Th 0 tribal populetisn 9f India is fliviaea ints thre^ c*-icra-
phical rones of s’^ich Middle Zone is spread swr the area between
20-25 "N art 73-90 *E. Ttis rone has hitS'est tribal population of
ove*" 20 trillion and it includes the states of Erhar and M.P. the
lirportant tribes of these area are Abu^brartia , Aoeria, Bales,
Bhai«. B'laria, Ehatra. BSil, Ghilala, Ein^tvar, Bhuiya, Bhuroia,
Oharvar Ohoba, Dhurwa. Dorla, Godba, Cond, HaJba, Kalenc, Kanar,
Kawar. Khairwar. Kharia. rhond, rol Kor*:u, Ko-va, Majhwar, Munda,
Kvria. NataretM. Naeesia, Kihal. O 3 CH, O-aon, rao, Fardhan, SaSa-
ria ■ and Saiar.

RlbATlONSHIP EETWEEN TRIBIC- WOMTW AK3 BATORit. MABITAT

In oeneral , Indian tribes are a eo^t^ottent of forest ecos> 6 -
terrs The women folk is wiainly food, fodder end fuel oatherer so
it causes createst irriact on the plant eonurities of the fo-ests.
This relationship le em-isasoed by knosmo the plant cSTfrunity of
thse forests. In Eihar the maior forests ere pr'ead over Chhota
haaour pleteeu. The forests are wostly sal forests ard are leas
productive. But these areas are rich in einenal resources. In
M.P. over 30\ area is under forest cover mostly situated alono
the hilly tracts. Buchanaraa. Cassia fistula, Tenrunalia, Battboo,
Aeole, Semeearrus (Chilma), Di^asal. Xnjen, E'er, Butea, Dheva,
Raldoo, Khair, Rullu. Tendu. Teak, Sal. Salkai, Serial. Sa^a.
Sheeahan, Mad^uea. Karra, Bahera. Aela. r.erth are eoae of the
Ufiportant plants of this area. The forest tree species provide
several (i-inor forest products besides tieber. fuel and bamboo.
These minor produces not only constitute important reveme source
but also provide work to tribals, particularly vforaen, in such
periods of scarcity when no acjculture is possible. Tendu
leaves, sal seeds, oums and resins, honey, and several important
mediciral products are collected mainly by women. In M.P, alone
the tribal women earn about 300 million rupees from these minor
products.

Thus, the tribal women play an important role in eouina,
txansplantipo weedino, harvestiPo and threshino of crops? lookino
after the cattles, 0*321110 and fodder collection, collection of
minor forest products and fuel wood, and marketina the products,
besides their routine domestic work.

Xll these activities have tremendous impact on the forest
ecosystem which are briefly discussed here to assess firally how
industrialisation and urbanisation diminish the impact of women
activities on our forest resources. Althouob tribal people have a
natural instinct for conservation of their habitat but ever
increasino economic stress inflate these activities more and
more. Under such cireumstanses the utilisation assumes the shape
of exploitation ard the forests oet erafluaJly decraded.

297

Ecolomcal Aspects of Shlft;ina Cultivation

Shifting cultivation has tireatly disturbed the developnient
ard successio*! of forest conriar*tie3. Scrub veaetationl pasture
lards and thatches in HiTnalayas are mainly marv-inade. Diecuseaina
the effects of shiftino cwltivati"n in the north-west HimalyHas ,
Hamilton (194Q1 stated that the fertility of soils is exhausted
and people are compelled to search Tor fresh lands to raise food
crops. It has been sxigcs^sted that in tropical areas shifting
cultivation should not be allowed as it net only destroys vegeta-
tion and fertility but it ciuses ettensive soil erosion and
floods.

Par shiftino cultivation tribal population move from place
tj place at an interval of 3-4 years abnrdoninc old dwellinoo and
elearinn the few areas. Thus i’xeoular patches are created in the
forests ard forest structure la affected tremendously. The pres-
eree of exotic species in otherwise luxuriant forest stands is
the direct result of shiftino cultivation. Compared to other
human activities which are usually located at the periphery of
the forests, ahiftino acriculbure seems to be more harmful as the
present study ira;'‘ates that most of the shifting aoracultursl
patches lie well within the centre of the corests. Burning ol
stumps during chiftinc cultivation causes total loss of ths
reoencretino seed stock. Some of the plant species thus eat
totally elinunated from the respective forests.

Impaot of Craoiro

Unlike rural areas, In tribal areas moctly wo,nen *olk la
involved in erazina their cattles. Cattle are taken within the
forest for cxarirc anl different crocino patterns are formed with
respect to the type of cattles. In the cattle shed also the feed
IS provided fror the forests. Goats bring about laroe scale des-
truction by freely browsing ove** all types of vegetatier. Their
penetration into deeper forest area was maximuni compared to cows.
Buffaloes are rot very eonmon, particularly in Elhar. This may be
correlated with the scarcity of water. Surplus animals which have
stopped milchino are left free in the forests for ever. This
causes almost total exclusion of shnib layer.

Cattle trade is an additonal dengnr to the forests. Traders
from Gujarat and Rajasthan take their cattle herds to distant
areas throueh these forests of H.H. and Dihar. While on their way
these micratory herds cause Isroe-scale destruction of forests by
crarlno.

Effects of Grasino on the Ecosystem

Grazinn affects the forest structure by altering rsoeners-
tion, seedlinc damaoe, and loss of cersiination due to compact

298

sail. Browsina by oaats destroys the utxJerstorey of shrubs and
tree branches nearer the eraund. Forest productivity is usully
low near the forest periphery 19821 . This is attributed to
the large scale orazino near the forst margins.

Cattle Popu)atian

Tribal women are responsible for looking after the large
cattle population. The percentage of cattle population in rela-
tion to tribal population varies greatly in different states
{Whyte 1964) 0.1\ West Bengal. O.St in TamilNadu, It in Assain,
2\ in Kerala, llOt in Janntu Kashmir, 80t in HimachSl Pradesh, 35t
in Ra^asttan, in Madhya Pradesh and 30t in Bihar.

Fuel and Timber Dei, and

Besides fodder, forests are required to meet the timber and
fuelwood demand of the dependent tribal population. Thus forests
are subjected to lopping, hacking, over-fellino and fires, etc.,
resulting in depletion of growing forest stock. According to Pun
(1960) shifting culivation is a pernicious system, which is
probably as desructive to forests as any other act of man. It is
a common experience that the forests rear tribal habitations are
usually poor compared to those situateo at a sufficient dis^'ance
from human settlements.

Stebbino (1921>26). Champion (1923). Hobbs (1941), Hisra and
Pun (1954) and Mohan and Pun (1955) have presented accounts of
the history of man’s interference with Indian veoetation. It la
interesting to note that certain forest communities owe their
existerce directly to the interference by man.

Fire

Forest fire is started mostly by women who set the litter on
fire to facilitate collections of fruits and seeds. Fire is a
predominant destructive factor. Litter is a rich source of mine-
rals for the foiest Eurnino the litter deprives the soil of the
oroame rrotrients and other loro-term effects on the soil. Many
important seeds and seedlincs are also destroyed and therefore,
forest reoreration is retarded.

Forest Exploitation

Forests yield many products like Tendu, sal, Mahua and
Rutea leaves, honey, fuelwood, sal ard Hahua flowers, Mahua,
Harra, Dahera, Char)tOli, Bhelwa and Amla fruits, sal and teak
timber, all possible free wood for fuel. DioscOria tubers, cuts
and resins from Sterculia, Anooeisus, Terminalia and Cochlosper-
mun, fibres for rope, grasses for fodder, broom ard thatehinc.

All thfrse constitute about 40\ of total forest products. The
exoloitaton by tribal wpfren folk does not result in the desired
economic benefit since the middle men of this unaut^'orised trade
exploit the tribals. Tprest exploitation ultimately results in
decradiro the forests.

rK’DUSTRW-.IZATIOB AND ORBAMSATIOV

Ourina past 30 tears fast inlustrialization has taker place
due to vhieh the natura' resources are constantly soutd't and are
□radually depleting since more and more forest larvd is beino
acquired for other purposes,

Bihar has rich deposits of coal, iron, mica copper, silver,
maroarese, chromite, lead, china clay, lime stone, platinum,
radium, and slate ouino to these deposits paper, fertil i rers ,
iron and eteel , jUte aJuminiiun, heaw machines, and other allied
industries are spread over a laroe area Of Cihar. Jarshrdpuri
Bokaro, Sinliri, Ranchi. Calniiyanaoar. Samastipur anj Barauni are
some of the mast important industrial places, of Rihar.

In Kadhya Pradesh coal, copper, limestone, manosrese, iron,
marble ond diamond are the most impotant deposits. Paper, iron
and steel, aluminium, cane-suoar, textile, China cjay, cement,
r^latine, plastte, heavy electricals and macMneh, pesticides and
battery are the ma^or industries spread throuehout the state.
Besides this, several hydrothermal and hydro-electrleity projects
are there in the vicinity of dominant tribal areas.

Impact of Industries on the Trihal Kabitats

Ir H.P. and Dihar the induanes hove developed in two wa)5,
cither by encroachiro upon the tribal habitats directly or by
heavily dependino upon the forest resources, in both ways the
tribal population is intimately affected. The basic forest eco-
systems have been transformed into industrial or urban centres,
baroe scale utilization of forest resources have decraded the
forests and the native tribal societies are compelled to micrate
to new industrial noeieties.

Chanoina Role of WoR<en in Industrial Societies

The hard life in the native areas of tribals la opttino
aradually eased particularly for women. Accordinq to ooverment
reports about 10% tribals are nowworkino* in the industrial
areas. The women are mostly enoaoed as labourer in various fecto-
ries which has made them at least firarcially secure. Some ha.e
adopted to more scientific acriculture on the developexl larri
which 18 provided to them as a compensation for dislodcmo them
from their native forest lands. In urban areas many women have

300

taken up dPT^stic ^P-s. Eastern M.**. and Western Bihar tribal
areas have cp-e under heavy xr-fluence of Christian rieaisns and
exposed rare tp epueatipn ppr^red tp other tribal area# of these
states. The ypuroer worsen are oettino Gradually rpre and more
enoaoed in rursxro trade. The eoucatipn policy is supportina none
and rpre tribal woren to take up education but rostly they co
upto hii* school education. The parents are still aoainst hicher
edication There -.e arple opportunities for their process in
the urban set up tut full benefit is pot reaped.

Heavy industries heue rot benefitted the tribals to the
extent of srall-seale industries. Here aoain it is the s’.ill of
wp-en folk w^'ich is reeocnised and they oet benefitted. The heavy
industries are based on t.»e concept of power subsidy, sale tax
Bubsidy, and on concessional rates of interest, none of which
ever benefit the tribals directly On the other hand cottace
industries like se»-iculture, handJoor, basket rakino and so^
cooperative schemes have shown better results in iirprovino the
statu* of tribal wo~er.

Apparar*'ly the industrial set up se«-^* to be rore favourable
for tribal wo-en eorpared to tffei- native ervironnwpt. Urially
^he tribal voran is seen as a potent tool of decadiro the forest
eussyste-, and the erM'orrert there is cPrsidered nore harsh for
then. Eul both systers have 80 "» berefits srd drawbacks. Aecord-
ire to Paisada (1946) the expectation that the industrialization
sf tribal areas would help in i~provipo the ecoro'-ie conditions
of the tribal cO"r-uraty has proved larcely illus“ry. “a^er indus-
trial project* located in the tribal areas have worked to the
detriment of the tribals by vp*ootino t‘“*n frw their hw~e. They
failed to provide opoorcunaties to all t-hose who were disturbed.
T^e responsibility of the e-oject sponsor ended just with t‘-e
payrer*^ of co-joensation for the acquisition of their lard.

The re^'abilitation and traimno proffa~reB have also failed
utterly eicply because they e’-e mt able to produce coods of
earketable quality.

The Concept of Forest Decs-adatior by Tribals

The activities of *Tibal woren have follywinc irpacts

a. Co Tjlete lendscase charoea by c^'arciro the veoetatior and

soil conditions.

b. wodifiea*’ion in reoene— atior capacity o' plan*- species.

c. The bio'-xc •n'luerce charoes c~wth pare-eters of plants.

d. Vec»tati5n e o -position and str-u-tu-e c'-aroes. Plan— a o'
d'-ie’’ habitats invade fo'^st a'^eas.

Forest canopy aid r-ic-oeli-oate ere in*-i-ately related. Ey
exploitiro the foliace rot only clii-a*-e is dras’-ically
charf^o lx_t the |>iooe9^v.f.-,jeal cycle is adversely

f. Forest danace- ts caused on pe—iphery by erazire and in

302

natural) etB. Their skills and talents reoardlng various aspects
of forestry should rot be overlooked. It is for this reason the
forest nurseries and the social forestry projects are takino the
full advartaoe of the rutslngcare of plants by the tribal wotnen.

REPEBEJJCES

ChaJTpion, H.G 1923. The influence of the hand of man on the dis-
tribution of forest types in Kumon Himalayas. Indian For.
49 117-136.

Datt, R 1973. Population Envlroment ard Development* The Envi-
romental Concern. Centre for Adult Education, Sew Delhi.
Lall. J.L 19B2. Ecological studies in sore forests of H.P. with
reference to channes broutht by human activities. Ph.D.
Thesis. APS Univ., Rewa. India.

Mishra, Y c 1964. Enviromental Eduction a**} Forest Manacemient.

Satlonal Semimr on Forest-Man Interaction, APS Utuv. , Rewa.
Misra, P and G,S. pun. 1954. Indian Manual of Plant Ecolocy.

Oxford and IBH Publ. eo-. Sew Delhi.

Hobbs, E.C. 1941. The early history of Indian forests. Indian
For. 67 231-242.

Mohan, H.P. and G S. Puri. 1955. The Kimalaysn eornfers. Indian
Far. ei 465-487.

Hushran, A.S\ 1983. Forest Man8<»<nent and develotment in riefit
Direction. Madhya Pradesh News 9 CS) 2-5.

Pun, G.S. 1960. Indian Forest Ecolooy. Oxford & IBN Publ. Co.,
New Delhi.

Raizada, A. 1984. Tribal Development in Madhya Pradesh. Inter
Zrdia Publ., New Delhi.

Shrivastava, A 1977. Study On Tribal women of Madhya Pradesh and
Bihar. Ph.D. Thesis. Ranchi University, Ranchi.

Shrivastava, O. 1984. Stress of urbanisation on our forest resou-
rces. Natiotal Seninar on Forest-Man Interaction. APS Univ,,
Rewa.

stebbincs, E.P, 1921-26. Forests of India. London.

Whyte, R. o. 1964. The Grassland and Fodder Resources of India.
I.C.A.R., Aew Pelhi.

CONTRIBUTION OF YOUTHS IN ENVIRONf-ENTAL PROGRAMMES
IN INDIA

V.P. liiidesia and S.P. Verm*

TTie recent accelerated cha;^ee3 in the balaice of K?turc have
created a consensus of opinion oi the ^ravitv of the situation
for hunanity as a whole. This is due to rapid technoloslcal aM
social changes and irrational exploitation of the resources of
carxh in diareftard to the cnviromcat . The nvestieationa of
eTvaro.nwjtal changes have become inportanb.

The sense of responsibility of people to protect an! improve
the enviroment is a vital part of fighting enviroirwatal rieera-
dation. It 13 the actions of map as planner builder, farmer or
consumer which cause enviromental deterioration- Therefore it is
on man’s attitude that the future of our water air coil forest
and mineral wealth ultimately depends. Hefvte it is important that
cverv one becomes enviroBwentally conscious throuch proper envi-
rotmeAtal education.

IIBBANISATION. TOOTH AND ENVI’ftOMF.OT

This ts well know.n that T.Tlia is an amcuitural developing
country. A fraiorit> of people live in vlllares. they should love
to stay in an open, healthy erwiroiment. yet several ruah to find
icbs and to settle down in urban areas. But why do they leave
villages. Diversity of iabs. marketiAg facilities, civic ameni-
ties ani large settleinent of htsnap beings make urban areas attra-
ctive. Urbanisation is man's ingenious process of govermnee of a
large group of people and their daily lives. E^canofme aspirations
and political mechanism lend vlaue to urbandsation.

Environment of Urba.n Areas

The ouality of urban enwiromient gets upset because of
a'xroatrolleol grow^. verticaJar <fensfty, foui air. inaocquacy of
basic facilities of drlnki.ng water, sewage and waste disposal.
Population congestion, lieavy street traffic and Inhistrles pro-
duce a canspy of smoke and harmful gases- Vehicular exhaust
-spread air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrotfen oxides,
organic vapoura lead, BinaVe. etc. All these pollutants ttakes the
atmosphere u'fiealthy as some of them are mutagenic and carcino-
genic. The antiquated methotb emploved for removal end disposal
of sewage and waste-water create serious problems of water pollu-
tion arri water-borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery

•Dept of Cheoistryj D.H. College, Heerut, India

304

etc. In an over-crowried city, the rapid Increaae In the uses of
loud-speakers, vehicular sirens, spectacular weddtnjM arri rali-
frious celebrations, social and political conferences, denoastra-
tions create noise pollution t^lch have audJolo^cal, biological
and behavioural effects on people. In urban areas man's relation-
ship with nature ;tets lost- much to man's own peril.

Urban Youth

Urba.n youth face maxlmsn of constraints at home, in school/
collejtes and the education system* not enoufd^ accoiwodation for
study a.nd privacy i.n the house, not sufficient playfrrounds atta-
ched to educational institutes, and for maxiirun part of the day
imprisoned in crowded classrooms. The system does not provide
direct experience of erviroment and people. Therefore, environ-
mental education should he a rmcesaary part of the present system
for the youth- both urban and rural.

YOUIM AND ENVIBOM^NTAL EDUCATION

A raior constraint on the implementation of conservation
measures is a lack of trained personnel. So. eaviroffnental train-
Ine and education for youths is the demand of time. It is the
fact that bieloeleal aft) physical features constitute the natural
basis of the himn envlronnent. Its ethical, social, cultural and
economic dimensions also play their part in deterndnian the lines
of approach whereby people may understand and make better use of
natural resources in aatlsfylnft their needs. Environmental educa-
tion is the result of reorientation of different dlseiplinea and
educatiorBl experiences which facilitate an Inte^atel perception
of the problems of the envlroment. The main aim lies la making
individuals and coemuMtles to understand the complex nature of
natural and built envlroifnents resultlnjc from the Interaction of
their bioloj;lcal. physical, social, economic and cultural aspects
and acquire the knowled^, values, attitude and practical skills
to participate in a responsible, effective way to solve environ-
rrental problems. Enviroisnental education ahoiild brinjr about a
closer liik between educational processes and real life.

Both the urban and rural youth are su;tpested to take part in
the environnental projrranmes. They should meet in the form of
"Envlroimental clubs". These proposed "Envlronnental clubs"
should be orjranised at local levels and should be lirfced with
national and international {croups which are actively en9a{ced in
solvlnjc euvirortiiental problems.

Ctojectives of Proposed Rural EuvironTental Clubs

The proposed clubs shall have the follovfins? objectives:

30S

1. To help social jrroups aixt Individuals acquire an aorare-
ness and responsibility to the total enviroiwent and its allied
problems through poster exhibitions, lectures, etc,

2. To enccurace vou«t people to study the envaronnental
issues at the local, aitianal and iatermtiOMl levels.

3. To arrange aM to participate la workshops, symposia, and
seminars and to have field proeramses.

k. To publish appeals newaletter, bulletins etc., whenever
necessary and possible.

5. To maintain a close link and actively cooperate with
organisations, national and international, govcrnsontal and aon-
govermiental , working for envirooneatal studies and conservation,

6. To help social groups and individuals acquire a set of
values and feeling of concern for the environrent and the cnotiva-
tion for active participation in ita in^roveront and protection,

Rcnefits from Partleipatton of Rural Youth

The participation of rual youth in the es.oroni'ental progra-
itres in the form of proposed ‘Rural Enviro-Trentel clubs' will be
valuable in the followi.at terra*

a. More information is acquired about local needs, problera.
capabilities and experience as effeetive planning and iiFplemonta-
tion require specific l.iformation of the sort only local people
can provide efficiently.

b. Better plans can be made that are more realistic about
what IS possible, what will be done a.ii what suits actual condi-
tions best.

c. ttexlrrum possible use of local resources, laboijr a.nd fU.nds
as well as land and material.

<i. Talest for management and aftoinlstratio.'i ca.n be developed
in the rural sector to ccni^let^nt that of the govermeat.

e, Nbintensace of investrants lo roads, canals, buildings
and other facilities is better where the local people have been
consulted and Involved in their creation.

The need for enviromontal education is continuous because
each new generation needs to learn for itself the importance of
conservation. The proposed Environnental clubs are to be establi-
shed to coordinate existing orgamaattons.

CONCLUSIONS

Tie abtyve discussion shows that there is an urgent need to
creaT» awareness among the youWis. Tewiths should meet together
under the roof of proposed "Rural Eaviro’nentai Clubs" to fight
environnental problems boldly and effectively. The proposed orga-
nisations will help the coverment ia maki.ng better plaze, acqui-
ring rrore information and better opportunities to use local
resources.

YOUTH IN SERVICE OF ENVIRONMENT

Ka;?arjuna Velaga*

A comprehensive view sf the ervirorr'®ht has taken a long
time ts develop It was foreshadowed in th® works of early Greek
eeientific philosophers some 24 centuries e<35» various combina-
tions of such basic elements as earth, tfir, fire and water.
Interestingly, if we take "flre“ to signify energy, we have here
four elemental components that enter Into today's environnertal
concerns Twentytwa centuries ago. Indian ^peror XshoVa (reigned
26S-238 B C ) defined a king’s doty as iWt merely to protect
citizens and punish %<rong doers, but alas t® preserve animal life
ard forest trees He also forbade the killing of a large twmber
of species of animals for sport or food. Similarly, many Indian
societies in North Aff*rlca have always believed in and lived out
the eTNiTOTrefllal. ethic.

in more recent times a comprehensive view of the erwironrent
has been taken by certain geographers stJCh as scot, Patrick
Geddes in the lata I9th century, it was th® Austrian geographer
Edward Seesa who. in 1875, introduced th® term 'Biosphere' end
the concept was systematically developed by tlie Soviet biogeoche-
mist, V I Vernadsky in the early part of this century. Conser-
vation movements have contributed to awarepsas of the environnent
as a eombitutien of dynamic forces in stable equilibrium. Some
ISO years ago Simon Bolivar issued a decree On conservation and
thus became the first conservationist in South America. Alexander
Graham Bell foresaw today's fossil fuel depletion problems as
early as the first quarter pf this certtury.

As young people account for more th»n half of the world
population, it goes without saying that it i® of paramount Impor-
tance to arouse their interest in nature conservation. This is
no doxAit the most effective way of bringing about the change in
mentally essential to maintaining diversity in the biosphere and
an overall ecological balance while ensuring in the long term
attitude of individual and collective reaponsibillty for the
natural envlrorment

in developing a national youth policy, envirormental aspects
of youth development such as the role of youth in the protection
and preservation of nature, the (oobiZiaaCion of the exuberant
energy of youth in community services to impi^ove the environrent,
should be taken into account in the productive use of leisure
time for enhancing the quality of life. Tho envirormental aspects
of national youth policies should Include activities such as tree

•Xntsmat. Stamp colJeetorw Assoc., Fatehnsgar, Hyderabad, India

307

planting car-palgna to combat deforeatatlon, daaertiflcatlon ard
soil erosions envirotmental health support activities for primary
health care; rehabilitation of urban slums and creation Of recre-
ation facilitiea. A policy on the needs and role of youth within
the national health development policy should be formulated as a
part of the national youth policy. A study of particular health
needs (physical ani payeheloglcal) of adolescents should be under
taken in each country. The study should take into account differ-
ent situations of the various categories of youth and the factors
which nay affect both their physical and mental health.

Particular attention should be paid to providing pure drink-
ing water for the rural areas. Youth and youth organizations
should bo encouraged to contribute their efforts to project to
meet the specific needs.

In consideration of the deterioration and degradation of the
enviroiment and ao an effective and economic means of enabling
wide participation of young people, goverments and non-govern-
mental orgaruzatlons are strongly encouraged Co launch a campaign
for tree-planting. Citizens across the alobe use the occasion of
the internatiouL Youth Year 198S for inereesang the awareness
end iRvolvenient of youth in activities for the protection end
enhancement of the ervironrent. If goals are global, youth
iruelves the planting 1000 million trees throughout 1995 or the
equivalent of ere tree for every youth in the world.

Schemes should be devised, in cooperation with relevant
goveriment departmertsi youth, women ard voluntary organizations
to encourage the mass participation of young people in the promo-
tion of primary health care in their community. Similar sehetpes
should also be devised for youth participation in enviromental
protection activities (envirormental sanitation, tree planting,
etc.) .

The challenge is formidable and uftfortunately it has so far
only partially been taken up by the teaching profession, notwith-
standing the growing share taken by erMrstntental education in
school curriculum. Admittedly, iormal education plays a necessary
and specific role in the field but it does very little to exploit
the immense potential for immediate action, disinterested enthu-
siasm and direct participation to be focused among young people.
Children possess an innate curiosity for everything arourd them
and It IS therefore simple to stimulate their interest in nature.
But can this be fully achieved by lessons in natural seierees, or
even ecology, mainly dispensed in an artificial class-room ervi-
roment. Young people are only too ready to demonstrate their
initiative in creativencss by prot€>cting nature in practical
ways. Do our school really offer them the chance to do so?

EKVIRONHENTAL PLANNING FOR FCOLOGICAaV
SUSTAINABLE DEVaOPKEHT

Alan M. Schwartz*

My task today i« to use the l<>80 Lak* Placid Winter OlyTrplc
Garties as an example of a larjte scale proiect in a framework of
ecologically auatainoble developcnetit. Perhaps some of the riost
compelline questions regarding developnent namely, should develop-
ment occur at all. how rruch developnent should take place, and
how the benefits of development should be distributed amane
individuals affected by it. will not be addressed in this paper.
Rather, a specific proiect will be examined with an eye towards
learning something about the etwlronrental planning process that
enabled this development to minimize its lirpact on the local
environnent. Failures of the process to deal with some questions
will also be discussed.

Lake Placid, New York, nestled in the heart of the Adiron-
dack Mountains ia certainly not the tvpical olvrrpie site. No
other ol^anplc site can be compared with Lake Placid. Lake Placid
IS emaller and less developed than any site to ever hold aueh an
involved sporting event. The only essential ingredients necessary
to host a winter olypmlos that were in excess were determination
art! enthusiasm. This town of 2900 people, located in a fragile,
unique etvlrorment for the northeast was able to incorporate an
Olympic games into the area with a great deal of forethought and
advance envlrormental plannlnK.

The planners of the J980 Winter Olympic Games followed a
several step ewlromwntal agenda to help ensure the Games c<xnoa-
tability with the environnent. They did this, not only because of
their desire to have an ecologically compatible winter Olympics,
tut because a Jack of environnental planning could have meant the
termination of the games at this site. It took only a handful of
individuals, convinced that the 1976 Winter Olympics would be an
envirotmental catastrophe for Colorado, to form a broad-based
coalition which elitrdrated the Olympic games from that region.
This poorly financed group of Olympic foes, calling themselves
Citizens for Colorado's Future, mustered thousands of hours of
volunteer support and 77,000 signatures on a petition to force
the Issue onto a state ballot, this grsssroot erwironrental
irovement was victorious over the local and state charrbers of
coomerce and the Denver Olyrrpic Coonattee. The most convincing
arguments they mustered centered on the negative effects of
Induced ja*owth that would follow the games and the fact the ma ior
gains would be made by hotel executives, promoters and business-
men, while all the negative effects would be a burden to the

Tsvrenee unlversitv USA

309

citizens of the area for rpaw vear^ to cc<r<;. "nio Lake Placid
oraamzers well aware of this potential threat incorporated
ervlromvntal rlannirv into the total plinrirc process ot the
earliest level after the decision to proceed witli the eines was
rroHe, llie plonners did this because the\ knew that the dbate over
laTKluse control*' within the adirondicks tiad alres N led to the
creation of stronc erviroiiT<ental croups thit could derail the
olvrpic Dlarmnc orocea® •hould it be oerceivesi tint the umaiie
wilderness aualitie*' of the adironrtacV« would he threitored. Om
of the first «tep« in tlie OiVKDie nlinmnc nroce«e therefore,
was for the lociT nlamiers The Lake Placid CVcamru'c Committe*'
(LPOOC) toi establish an environpental couticil Ttus council
headed hv a lifelonc Lake Placid resident Vern linh nttOTrnfe'l
to forTT a coalition of all interest***! environi»’ntal oreamrations
in the state. TTie Tain function of the eroiici wa« to ailvisc th**
LFOOC of what cnviporrrental problems mirfit arise «»l wliat mitici-
tinc treasures fficiit h*. incortxarat***! info the Olwpic pl.anninc
process to protect the irvironeent. This srour was also charted
to work with a consultant in the cc»rolctvon of a fVnft Environ-
irertal Itriiact statement which was riaiuired W the Pcl^ral Nitio-
Ttil Ervirorrental Policy Act the r*n?reoin«ito for frlcral funis.
Perhaps the most ifroortant ani unlerstated role of tht« environ-
mental eourcil was to as«ure the LPOOC that reorcsentotlae* of
envirorrental erouos would he iivolwl In dialogue with the
conmittee ani the etvironT**rtaliat« on the courcil iwre comincrd
their reprcsentatis^ croups ai»l erviroiwntal coticcrns were in-
deed beinc incorporat'yf into th** plormnc rroceas. Tfie fPCOC
deemcl it es«entlal that am rurors or soecnlntion of sicmficant
ervironrertal decrodation be ninDo<l in the bmi. TTie ore thine
that an incredibls tictit nlvmpie planning process could iwt
tolerate, especi.allv in a recion with euch a whort construction
period war eir i ro iai v rtal litieation.

A secomi tra lor contributine fact to the success of the
envirotn^ntal planmro rrocerr was (he hirine of local evnerts
who wire first-rate in their field. TVci of the reclon's rine't
environrertal law\er« who had for years repre*ented ewiroiirent.al
crouDS were hired bv the olvrnic oreamrers to work witti Uic'ti in
the environrental planmiw aspects of the cMrer. Also, a fit st-
rafe ewjnvrerfaJ ewruJiawf ffi'e cvii errri'iu

mental nmact «tatement. Tliia cnmultant's past eiTviroiTrental
asressm'nt efforts were critical! reviewed In order to fin’ a
consultant who did not whitewash environrental issues, but rath-'r
oddreaae<1 th«»a' head on ani cffectiveiv.

The Fnvirorrnent.al Coiinril 's activities <at first eenter»vf
UDon the documented title "Tlie Draft Environrental Irrpaet 'State-
ment for the IPflo kintor Olvarpie Gairos." 11118 document, prepared
bv .a private consultant, was over iix inches thick and contained
information about every site ,anl twtentlal impacts for even
cctivitv aa«ociatc<l with the rames. Altlioueh an linireasive docu-

312

position ©r haviPR surroanriiiw laiyluse controlled by the Adiron-
dack Park Arency that a<tTiimatera perhaps the strictest private
landuse control plan In the Umted States. Thus, maior Induced
(trowth iiTipacts that were feared In Denver, never materialized in
the Adirondacks because of this unusual reeulatory ajrency. Qian-
ges in the Lake Placid comrrumty, althourii outside the jurisdic-
tion of this ajr«“nev, • are up to the people of the villaee of Lake
Placid and thus also not influenced by th» Olympic planners.

Thus, when one views the entire planmn* process, the Lake
Placid Olympics presents us uith an interestine althoueh somewhat
umoue example. First, maior ciwirortnental iimaets were rmmmrert
bv the necessity of draft and final impact statements, th*’ crea-
tion of an cnvirormental council that incorporated erTfironrental
values into the verv bejnnmnjt of the planninz process, top
oualitv experts hired earlv m the planmne process, and the
inclusion of ervirormental monitors with lejral power to oversee
mitigation measures. Tn this wav, temporarv impacts ant sit"
specific impacts were truly mimmized and the Olympic games were
held without maior crviromiental prohlema. Induced jtrowth, which
often IS the largest and most difficult problem to deal with, in
this ease was reeulated bv a aeoaratc agenev. In most ‘“ases on>
must ask the ouestlon. who will d«al with the inducM prowth and
secondary impacts when prelects get as largo as an olvmpie games.
Lastly, problems that did arise s«emed to b® related to the fact
t)iat the people who planned the games, had no control ever speci-
fic problem areas. This is something that always will occur and
thus anv large-scale protect that is to he built with an eve
toward eeologicatlv sustainable development should be rt«frned in
broadest terms, and all aspects of potential envirormental prob-
lems. even if they fall outside the lurisdiction of the planning
agenev. must be considered. This obviously points to large inter-
iJisciplirurv planning efforts as a cornerstorr* of ecologically
sustairable development.

314

GRAVEL LAKE SITUATION

I ^ave watched a gravellake near Autobahn A-39 situated near
Wolfsburg in the Schunter valley In lower Saxony frotn its begin'
nlng. I live in the village Flechtorf about 300 m west from the
banks of the gravellake. Gravel had been dredged out of the
pasture meadows to build the dam for the highway.

After the springtime dredging and planning thearea came to
an end in 1982, I decided to use it for setting an environmental
education course with the students who wanted to become biology
terachers. 1 had the idea to create a project but I still had no
experience, no definite curriculum outline and no definite aims,
I had a pattern B. Blume (1981) had succeeded with his pupils In
preserving bank areas of the lake Elnfelder See for nature. My
course started with 8 students, going once a week to the gravel-
lake to study how nature was working In a wasted area.

The Field Course as a Project

First the students interest was to study how nature works.
They solved problems of mapping the area, soil planing by cater-
pillars, types of erosions, overflowing of river Schunter, plants
growing in the pioneer vegetation, silt movement by wind and
waves, and kinds of animals resting at the lake. The students did
not care much for the human activities because in the rather cold
April days only a few village people walked down to the lake and
led their dogs.

One day, on finding the eggs destroyed in a nest of Charat
drius dubius , the students were foiled to preserve nature ari?
take care oT men 's Interest for the lake. We also decided to try
protecting nature and after discussions a plan was worked out
which covered the interests of village people to walk along ♦ho
lake and the nature preservation by marking sorpe areas forbidden
for vacation activity. The plan was given to the civic authori-
ties who stopped most vacation activities like car driving to
lake shores, bathing swinming and boating, in summer 1982 by
setting up sign posts. In 1983, very little disturbance from such
activities was registered. In wintertime, two students Involved
in gaining some teaching experience at a secondary school,
developed lessons for the study of animals at the gravellake. The
children (aged around 11 years) learned ecological adaptations of
birds and also how to behave with the birds.

In the spring of 1983, another group of students decided to
watch nature from certain selected regions. Some students watched
nesting birds who made nests at the gravel lake for the first
time as they needed reed banks which had grown in summer 1982.
Other students looked fopr plant strategies, how they spread out
their rhizomes into flat banks, and what animals werre grazing
reed. All of them discussed together to get in touch with village

31S

people and decided to organise an exhibition.

During winter, two students worked out an exhibition which
was opened In the coimunity hall of Flechtorf in December 1983.
More than 300 students visited it with their teachers.

In 1934 no student worked In the gravellake project but some
people in the village showed interest in the Project. The follow-
ing activities were undertaken

►lore than 16 small pools and puddles were dredged out for
amphibia. A planed plantless gravel field was settled for nests
of Charadrius dubius. All nature preservation areas were fenced.
A bridge is to oe built over river Schunter so that village
people can use a new circuit trail along the ron-fenced banks of
the lake down the river to the village.

During spring 1985, another group of students proposes to
study the gravellake especially the established biotopes, and we
hope to have better contacts with the village people.

Mapping Gravellake Area

Before our project, there was no survey of the area made by
Amt fSr Agrarstruktur, the most important civic authority for
planning gravellakes and their use. This authority had also to
compensate the farmers for the lost land by land-exchange (Flur-
berelrigung) or money. The new law of land exchange took care of
biotope management and therefore we worked closely with this
authority.

During May 1982 we got a mao (1:5000 scale) from Amt fir
Agrarstruktur and divided it into a grid of squares. All our
findings were recorded in the map (Figs 1-4). We learned of a
plan of the company which had dredged out the gravellake. They
wanted to bring in a mass of plants (grasses, reeds, bushes,
trees) around the gravellake but it was rot necessary as the
nature works by itself end the Amt could save lot money on such
efforts. In June we found most banks already covered with reeds
and even young trees of Salix caprea and Salix fragilis, possibly
planted by village people, grew up. We also placed arguments
against the conmstruction of a road around the lake as it could
get eroded away by the overflowing Schunter river.

Later we found indications of bad water quality (high N
indicated by enonrous growth of Glycena rraxima) caused by flood-
ing of the lake from Schunter river. In the beginning, children
did not heed our warning but bathing was stopped when mass death
occurred of Gastercsteus aculeatus due to blue green algal blooms
in warm days of July. Fish death was also an inducement to the
Amt for setting up signposts warning against unauthorised vaca-
tion activities in the area. Later, at cur request the health
authorities (Kedizinaluntersuchungsamt) confirmed the bad water
quality and high coliform content of ttie water and declared it
unfit for bathing.

316

Students Proposals for Nature Conservation

The ^t for Agrarstruktur invited proposals for decidina
areas suitable for nature protection and those could be open for
villagers. We invited a nature preservation expert who was a well
known leader of nature preservation association Bund Urvelt und
Naturschutz Deutschland e.V. We had no difficulty to compromise
between nature preservation strategies but to find acceptable
offer for people to walk along the lake. An official of the Art
far agrarstruktur care up with the best Idea of building a bridge
touching the gravellake (Fig. 5). for nature preservation we
looked cut places for amphibia spawn ponds, nesting sites for
birds and to plant trees and bushes to cover animals. All these
plans were Included in the plans of the Art, and comrrunity
accepted them.

Acceptance of students • proposals fed back ruch eneray. The
group worked intensively, some continuing in semester vacation.
Students ained experience to co'munlcate with village people,
regional news reporters and especially with children groups in
school when students planned lessons about animal adaptations to
gravellake biotope.

Now the didactic aspet becatre important. In 1983 an exhibi-
tion about plant and anira) succession at gravellake area was
made and thus contacts were established with the capital commu-
nity which gave money to support student activity and later the
exhibition was arranged in village community hall. In this exhi-
bition people could be active playing the gravellake game, making
a learning rally through nature at gravellake and there was a
vacation tree covered with notes what would happen to animals and
plants if one gave space to vacation interest. The nature preser-
vation aims were greatly appreciated and the newspapers also
noted that. Only few elder people came to the exhibition possibly
due to Christmas time.

CONCLUSIONS

Enquiries from students about the effects of the project gave
positive impressions about learning plant and anlna! species in
their ecological setting and knowiwedge how to act with authori-
ties. It helped them finding practical ways for environmental
edzucation outdoor classroom.

It must not be a gravelake situation for environmental edu-
cation but other examples to see how nature works in wasted areas
and how man s interests come in conflict with plant and animal
life. The project gave teacher-students better educational ideas
to watch nature work, and they also gained experiences on manag-
ing aspects of ecosystem development. This brings hopeful view in
environmental education vrfich will help coming generation to find
economic ways to include nature and awid working against it.

322

REFERENCES

Blume, B. 1901. Projektorlcntierter Unterricht im Lelstungskurs
OkologJe, dargestellt am BelspJel eiror Landschaftsplanung
an tikosystem Elnfelder See, in* Riedel and Trormer (Eds)
Oidaktik der Ckologie, KQln,

Junge, F. 1385. Der Dorfteteh als Lebensgemelnschaft. Lohr and
Dirks, St. Peter-Ordlng.

Trommer, G. 1983. Zur hundertjflhriqcn Geschlchte Okoloqischen
Unterrichts. In Klnzelbach (Ed) Verhandlunger der Gesell-
schaft fur dkologie. vol. X- Mainz 1981. Goltze, Gdttingen.

Trommer, G. 1983-84. Zur historischen Entwlcklung des Themes
"Naturschutz" In Blologieunterricht, NNU 36‘ 4S0-474: 37’

16-22.

Trormer, G. 1984. Stratcgten zum Nator- und Unweltschutz mit dem
Schwerpunkt "Wasser" under dem Geslschtspunkt genoheltllcher
Natur-, Helmat- und tandcskunde. Ole Heimat 91: 344-358,

TENNESSEE VALLEY AimiDRITY:

A KQDEL FOR COOPERATION EKVtRONfEHTAL EDUaTION

jDhn Jjdy*

TTie Termsss^e Valley Authority (TVA) Is a federal ecency of
the United States Goverment with responsibtlty of developing and
wnaglng both hiran and natural resources within the Tennessee
River Valley. TVA serves an area within the sotrtheastem United
States rade up of parts of seven states- Tennessee, Alabara,
Mississippi. Kentucky, Virginia. North Carolina and Georgia. It
includes the watershed of the Tennessee river system and surroun-
ding Territory served with TVA power. The area contains 91,000
sguare riles with a 1SS0 population of 7.8 oillion people eoulva-
lent In size to Great Britain. TVA is an independent agency of
the Federal Goverment created by an act of the US Congress In
1933. In asking Congress to create TVA, President Roosevelt
called for 'a corwratioQ clothed with the power of goverreent
but possessed with the flexibility and initiative of a private
enterprise”, tva is heeded by a 3-re^er Board of Directors
appointed by the President cf the United States and confiTred by
the US Senate. The president designates a chaJrran frcn a.Teng the
three directors.

TVA- has received warld wide recocnitJon for its system cf
cultlpJe-pyrpose Cars that provide flood control, ravlgatlon,
electric pover production, recreation and water supply. The total
power systen Includes 29 hydroelectric plants, 12 coal-flred
stean plants. 2 nuclear plants, one hydroelectric pir-ped storage
plant and four cortwstlon turbine plants. The power system is
self-sustaining. Revenues from the sale cf power cover all costs
cf operating and calntalnlng the systen; however, power custcrers
do pay for TVA s new power programs such as fertilizer deve-
lopoent, ecooonic development and natural resource prcgra“s.

Within the TVA office of Natural Resources and Econonic
Develeprent is the Envlrcrrental/Energy Program, This educational
prograa Is a regional effort in southeastern United States.
The TVA progran is supportive of cany of the recomendatlons of
the Intergovemcental conference on Crvlromental Education held
in 1977 In Tbilisi (USSR). Broad program objectives of TVA In
envlrofwental education are to;

1. Icprove the quality of life, environrent and envlronren-
tally oriented education In the Tennessee valley region.

Z. assist In the develojnent of attitudes, values and life-
styles that are Inherent In a quality envlrorrerrt.

324

3. provide learning experiences that directly Involve people
in identifying and solving real comninlty enviromental
problens.

4. assist in the develpnent of a citizenry that has a basic
jnderstanding of human relationships and Interactiono with
the total environnent. understands the need for maintain-
ing ecological balance. Is aware, concerned end motivated
to work on solutions to environmental problems, and is
individually coritted to improving the environnent.

5 provide Infomatlon about the environment and its associa-
ted problems to the citizenry so they can make the best
possible decisions on the utilization of resources-
To implement these objectives both formal and nonfomal
programing are necessary. Essentially the formal programs arc
targeted toward the elementary, secondary and higher education
entities. The nonfomal programs are those In which individuals
participate within their own discretionary timeframe. To further
expand upon the objectives. TVA has made some basic assumptions
underlying Its approach to envirconental education-

1. Environental education includes both formal and nonforral edu-
cation.

2. Environmental education is a process-orlerted approach and Is
aimed at assisting the learner In becoming Infermed end in learn-
ing how to be effective in solving end preventing the full-range
of enviponrental problems.

3. Environmental education is interdisciplinary in approach.

4. Environmental education is aimed at motivating the individual
to act upon his env'ron-nental concerns.

5. Environmental education Is concerned about the social Implica-
tions of environmental decisions.

6 Environmental education is directed toward helping Individuals
beccne knowledgeable concerning the total environment (natural
and manmade) and associated problems (physical, social, economic,
political and cultural).

7. Environmental education Is directed toward increasing the
learner s interest in, awareness of and sesltivlty towards
the environment.

The preceding delineation serves as a functional framework
tor environmental/energy education as implemented by TVA. Primary
targets fo- TVA s program are the citizens within the Tennessee
Valley region, however, since one purpose Is to provide exemplary
progra-s for the nation, TVA services may be broad ranging and
not restricted to any one geographical ara. Selected inputs of
TVA into the dsvelpment of progra-s depend upon the type of
program, formal or non-fomal.

A. Within the formal education program, TVA seeks to:

1. provide professional assistance consisting of technical
Inforration, leadership and continuing llaslon to bring eb^

32S

e self-sufficient program for the sponsoring entity.

2 provide facility development assistance to schools and
organisations In the development of outdoor and Indoor faci-
lities for environfnontal education.

3. provide needs assessment assistance to local schools and
organisations in asseslng environmental concerns preparatory
to program developfnert.

4 provide site analysis assistance to schools In analysing
potential sites for cjldoor classrooms, laboratories, Inter-
pretive trails and study sites based on the feasibility of
the site, suggested uses and long range utilization.

S. provide assistance In identifying and obtaining materials
for material resource centers on local and regional levels
and specific materials suitable for classroom use.

6 provide assistance with In-service programs designed to
Instruct teachers In the technique and philosophy of envlron-
mcntal education including such activities as problem solving
sefTlnars. Instrjmentatlon workshops, field activities and
orientation mie simulation sessions and cnvlronnyintBl aware-
ness programs.

7. provide continuing education assistance to environmental
education centers and universities In the development and
IfTplementation of course work for teachers In envlr©nmi»nt8l
education,

0. Hlthln the nonformal education program, IVA seeks to.

1. provide assistance with adult and continuing education
through cooperative efforts with colleges and universities In
program design end Implementation.

2. participate In cooperative programming with social, state
and federal organisations, serice and civic groups, and the
private sector to produce programing end materials for non-
formal entitles.

3. participate In or develop conrunlly education seminars
relating to educational and environmental concerns on the
local level.

4. develop 7VA land and facilities for access and use by the
public as participants In nonfonnal envlrontnental education
activities.

Although the preceding are the rrtajor areas of emphasis,
special demonstrations designed to Id^tlfy and test Innovative
techniques and processes are also frequently supported by 7VA s
envlrorwrental education effort. Ihe major d'‘inoristralion area Is
170,000 acre site, Land Detween the lakes (IDL), located In th**
states of Kentucky arvnd Ternosseo. Ejecutlve approwai In 1963 by
President John F. Kennedy Initiated Wils national demonstration
area. 7he two major themes and areas of demonstration w«re to b«
outdoor recreation and environmental education. Until th^ early

326

t970s, TVA s environmental education program had been centered
primarily on LBL. With Increased Interest In environmental educa-
tion, TVA received more requests for assistance. To eliminate
duplication of efforts and to provide coordination a TVA Advisory
Council for Environmental Education was formed. The membership
consisted of managers of programs with environmental educatlonm
activities. The Council made the decision to establish a regional
Environmental Education program. The program would assume respon-
sibility for environmental education within the Tennessee Valley
region. From the valley-wide perspective of environmental educa-
tion, two major program components were established. One compo-
nent, the formal education project was designed to systematically
develop a network of environmental education centers to work with
school systems and universities. The other component, the nonfor-
mal education project, was designed to coordinate the development
of TVA lands and facilities, and develop programs for the non-
school population.

The formal education project has rsulted In the establish-
ment of 10 university centers for envlronmental/energy education
activities. It should be noted that energy education was added to
the program title during the 1970$ to reflect the concern over
energy resources. In the establishment of the centers, TVA funds
are matched by the University. TVA funds are generally cotrmltted
on a reducing basis over a 5-year period. As TVA funds are redu-
ced, university contributions are increased, allowing the average
budget to be maintained. The centers are designed to become self-
sustaining end to continue to provide educatlonel services after
TVA funding to the center ends. Matching funds from the Universi-
ty, TVA s reduction In funds and the self-sustaining objective of
the center result In cost-effective operations.

Each center has unique program development and delivery
capability because of these different characteristics, additional
funds are located with both private and governmental sources. The
combination of Federal. State, private business anti citizen group
support adds financial support to the centers end is also signi-
ficant In broadening the base of groups that endorse environmen-
tal and energy programs. There Is a ratio of 4:1 on the average
on center and TVA funds. Cost effectiveness is also measured in a
multiplier effect that with the Investment of teacher training,
allows one teacher trained at a center activity to impact many
students. Approx. 15,000 teachers have engaged In environmental/
energy education since the beginning of the network strategy.

It Is estimated that those teachers will teach 1.1 million
student-days of environmental and energy education annually.
Teachers receive several services through the respective centers.
These services include:

Teacher Training . Including the upgrading of existing teachers
an3 offering training to University students Intent on education

327

es a profession.

Regional Service. Including a cIea^lng^ouse function for infortna-
tion on key issues and concerns. Individual assistance to citizen
groups and organisations, and work with specific schools In the
region.

Prooram Development. Including energy, agriculture and natural
resopurce theraes as well as programs designed to strengthen the
basic skills initially focussing on science and maths.

Research. Including practical review and testing of curricula,
demograpnlc and distribution studies for program delivery end
needs and resource Inventories on Valley counties.

It Is projected that by 1990 there will be 16 University
based centers. These centers will have provided training to
30,000 teachers, completed 70 educational programs conducted 50
research projects and provided outreach to over 300 community
groups and organizations.

The Nonformal Education project provides two approaches to
environmental /energy education. First Interpretive exhibits and
programs are provided at selected TVA lands and facilities.
Creative exhibits and active public progrannlng make TVA lands
and facilities "living laboratories* and provide the public with
the opportunity for environmental and energy learning as well as
broadening understanding of TVA and Its work. Hany of these
progerams and exhibits address themes of natural resource manage-
ment, energy conservation and natural history.

The second approach Involves programs to the public rather
than the public visiting a specific TVA facility. There ere
several citizens In the USA interested in resource conservation.
One such group is the National Council of State Garden Clubs, Inc.
There are approx. 10,000 garden club members in each state. TVA
staff have conducted workshops on energy conservation and water
quality with leaders in the 7-state Tennessee valley. The work-
shop participants are leaders within their respective states and
are trained as leaders to conduct similar workshops In their
local areas. Plans are now underway to conduct a similar workshop
on wildlife resources.

Other special projects conducted by TVA staff in both formal
and nonformal project areas Include the development of activities
in agriculture, energy conservation and global envlronrrrntal
concerns.

A course of study on Integrated Regional Resource Hanagement
has been developed based on the experience of the Tennessee
Valley Authority. The course Is desgnled for .resource practition-
ers In developing countries with responsibilities In areas such
as water resource management, agriculture, fertilizer and chemi-
cal developmenti forest and wildlife management, engineering
design and construction, and regional economic and conminlty
development. Participants should have the ability to participate
in discussions, exercises and projects conducted In English.

ENVIRONKENTAL EDUCATION FOR THE BIOSPHERE-
WORKSHOPS ON ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Jerry Berberet*

Environmental educators and scbolars. and a scattering of
other environmental professionals anti students from ten countries
and five continents participated during October 5-7. 1984. in a
workshop to evaluate educational strategies for ecologically sus-
tainable development. Held at the Chateau Lake Louise in Banff
National Park, Alberta, the workshop Involved intensive small
group assessment of ecological and cultural Imperatives which
contribute to patterns of environmental exploitation as an econo-
mic resource. Insights gained from the analysis of economic,
political, social and ecological factors in development formed
the content for educational approaches and methods the workshop
generated to Improve the ability of both formal and citizen
education to respond to crucial issues of biosphere survival.

Sponsored by the Environmental Studies. K-12 Education and
Non-Fortnal Education Sections of the North American Association
for Environmental Education (NAEE). the workshop inaugurated the
annual conference of naee which met for the first time in Canada,
October 7-9. The purpose and structure of the workshop was model-
led after the International Workshop on Development and Biosphere
Stability, held In New Delhi, June 1-5. 1984. The one-hundred
participants from t6n nations at the workshop In India focussed
upon patterns and Impacts of development in the developing Third
World: the Lake Louise gathering ectphasized the economic develop-
ment-environmental protection Interface In the more highly Indus-
trialized North American context. Both workshops related their
respective regional analyses to the blogeochenical well being of
the biosphere as a whole and the notion of protecting habitats as
physical, biological and cultural ecosystems.

The New Delhi workshop, cosponsored by the Indian Environ-
mental Society, the Indian Departjwnt of Environment. Indian
Ministry of Education, the World Council for the Biosphere and
JAte IftcerniCiacii Scctetr iwtronnutett EOacettcn
that problems of deforestation, desertification, sell erosion and
salinization of soils are environmental problems first and fore-
most because they threaten the ability of developing countries to
feed themselves. Facing high rates of population growth and low
per capita income. Third Msrld natitmis place higher priority upon
,ecemnonlc development than environmental quality. Alamed by the
Increasing magnitude of environmental problems, however, especia-
lly those caused by population pressures, concern is growing that

*CoJJc7« of Diberot Arts. Williaactts tbixversity. VSA

330

effective envlrer~enta! ransge-ent rust accorcany ecoTCric
advances.

In addition to the recocnitlen that steos are necessary to
raintain the very existence of the environrent as an econceic
resource, the hew Delhi discussions revealed anxiety about the
irpact of eccnoric develcc'^nt urcfi traditional cultural values
and nores. Sere saw the envircnsental rover^nt as a way to shore
uo cherished elerents of culture which transcend wterlal aspects
of hiran well being. The call w»s heard that deveioDino countries
should •reindustrialize" and “re'^emlTe" in ways that avoid the
disruption of values, fa-ily structure and cccrrnity which have
accerpanied industrialization in the West. Kaintenance of cultu-
ral diversity was seen as ccrparable In icoortance to the notion
of ecological diversity. Preservaticn of traditional cultures
which have sustained enYlrerrents for cillenla end values wehich
stress censervatierr; and a land ethic were especially erphaslzed.

Envircnrental Education was seen as a vehicle to pronote a
balance whereby standards of living could be uperaded in a way
ccroatible with lr?>eratives of envlrcnoent end culture. -Workshop
participants recerrended establlshnent of a national envlromen-
tal education center in India to provide research, teacher trai-
ning and direction to the Indian EE njve-ent. Educational efforts
were seen as especially needed to reach into rural -areas and to
influence decision rakers In Sovemrent, business and industry.
In order to have biosphere-wide irpact the workshop re c err e nded
that a global environrental education network be established to
foster research, share infoiration and ieprove ccrnmlcatlons on
envlrcmental wtters.

The theie of the Lake Louise Workshop, "Educaticn for the
Biosphere Thinking eicbally. Actino Locally*, invited partici-
pants to devise educational straleales that would cove environ-
nental education beyond the classroon to the larger ccenmity. In
fact the Workshop inspired an activist rood which carried over in
the NAEE conference and resulted in approval of the so-called
"Banff Declaration*, a call for a renewed environmental education
rovenent on a global scale due to the decline in cuallty of life
for vast nurbers of people and ccntulnued deterioration of the
global envircre-ent since the UN Stockholn conference in 1972. The
Banff declaration noted that enviroorental education cust be
inserted at the center of the so-called “Back to Basics* roveirent
in education in order to “endow learners with envlronnentai
competencies that will enable then to contribute to the resolu-
tion of local and global proble-s and to the development of an
ecologically sustainable society”. Further, the Declaration pro-
posed the evolution of a new environ-ental ethic erbraclng “the
whole of the natural order* end every aspect of education (see
Appendix A)

Following the lead of the Banff Declaration, workshop parti-
cipants adopted a series of recomendations to address resolutico

531

of local to global envirorunerttal problems trore effectively. Spe-
cifically tbe group recomended development of a "Global Environ-
mental Education Strategy" and establishment of a "World Environ-
mental Education Fund" to support realization of the new environ-
mental ethic called for In the Banff Declaration. The workshop
also urged creation of a olobal environnental infomation network
and widespread dissemination of advanced Information technology.
Finally the workshop uroed increased efforts to develop envlron-
nentai education programs In the rajor sectors of society beyond
the schools (see Appendix B).

Although the New Delhi and Lake Louise workshops were struc-
tured similarly, differences in setting and backgrounds of parti-
cipants presaged several contrastino outcomes. The lake Louise
workshop attempted to use the splendid setting of Banff National
Park as a case study of a conscious attempt to limit development
in systematically planned ways. Although the Lake Louise gather-
ing took pains to consider development regionally and globally as
veil, the context of this workshop contrasted starkly with New
Delhi s urban setting and the pressures upon the land everywhere
in evidence in India. Contextually, the two workshops represented
almost the extrernes of priority upon economic development and
envlronfental preservation which exist within the global environ-
mental education corrunity.

The professional background of participants in each workshop
varied significantly, even though ten nations and several conti-
nents were represented In each. Most of the New Delhi partici-
pants were research scientists and social scientists or environ-
mental officials from India. They tended to analyse ecological
and cultural imperatives in detail and were largely inexperienced
in developing effective educational strateoies to conrunlcate
this knowledge in classroom and coBninlty. The Banff group, on
the other hand, largely consisted of professional environmental
educators from the highly developed West, notably Canada, Austra-
lia and the United States. The lake Louise participants had mixed
success in evaluating and relating ecological and cultural Impe-
ratives in depth, but were systematic and comprehensive In arti-
culating the "Global Environmental Education Strategy*.

keynote speakers reviewed the New Delhi Workshop, described
the Banff and other park planning and maraoenient processes, and
introduced discussion of ecological , cultural and educational
imperatives. Workshop co-Oirector, Arthur Sacks, curent NAEE
President, outlined major conclusions and recorrendations of the
New Delhi gathering. Sacks remarks underscored the critical
contributions of the humanities to environmental education in
providing analysis and Interpretation of the culture-environment
relationship. Alan Schwartz of St Lawrence University presented a
case study of the planning and execution of the 1930 Winter
Olympics at Lake Placid, an elaborate development undertaking in
the midst of northern New York 1$ Adimndacfc Park. This project.

332

rele/ant to the workshop because of the proxinity of the 1S83
Olyrpics to Banff Park illustrated ways in which envlron-iental
and econo-ic interests can be served through a systematic ransge-
nent process.

Valerius Geist of the University of Calgary, John Baldwin of
the University of Oregon end Stapp, retiring KkEE Presi-
dent frcn the University of Michigan, delivered keynote addresses
prior to SPall group sessions on ecological, cultural end educa-
tional irperatives. respectively, in sustaining developnent.
Geist emphasized the necessity to raintain the regenerative and
therefore productive capacity of soils, to preserve protected
natural areas as th* ^eed stock for ecological recovery of
de“aced lends, and to control toxic pollution of food chains, a
hazard which ray be reaching crisis proportions in scn^ of the
nost highly industrialized parts of the world.

Baldwin stressed lifestyle irpllcations of the emerging
post-industrial society In the west. Citing such works as Nais-
bitt s KegatrenCs and Toffler s The Third Wave, he suggested that
the arrival of the Inforration Age raises possibilities of
reduced energy consumption, resource utilization, and pollution
output per unit of prodjction as the trokestack industries are
replaced with co-puters and robotics. At the sene tine, decentra-
lizing tendencies accompanying this ■inforration revolution" may
create new envtrcn-ental proble's as copulations trove away from
urban areas to settle in and around high ouallty often protected
natural areas.

Stapp outlined a comprehensive and systematic strategy for
envircnrental education, truly a systems approach which would
enable the educational process to mirror interdependent, interac-
ting characteristics or the hu-an ecosystem. His analysis related
th» formal and nonforral dimensions of education, the public and
private sectors of society, the producer and consumer elements of.
econory. the decision rakers and general citizenry of the state,
the rural ard urban portions of the landscape, and the natural
and built envlroaments. Stapp emphasized the roles of holistic
thinking, effective ccnmunlcation and Individual inpowerDent as
necessary techniques to provide envircnrental education with the
organization and ro-entum to grow in influence.

For the more than one-hundred participants the highlight of
the workshop was ttv» brainstoming process on the imperatives In
nine s”all groups, each mirroring the International, gender and
professional characteristics of the workshop as a whole. General
reporting sessions captured sene of the richness of the snail
group sessions but w<»re unable to corrvnicate effectively the
subtle elements of discourse end the intense fellowship which
occurred. Although few new insights about ecological and cultural
iinperatives emerged, the focus end content of conclusions and
recemendatiens regarding enviromental education were gratifying
especially in the integration of ecology and culture in the

354

Beth yerfcshees end the rcveTgnt for susUlnzble developnsT-
rereived considerable puhHcity due to their international chara
cter and their relationship to events which attracted prtrine^
nedie attention. The Hew Delhi Gathering ojlrlnated in the obser-
vance cf the World Ervirement Day, «>jne 5, feati.'ring proorar-
includino addresses fnr the ftrwr-able Zail Singh, President cl
India. Mostafa Tolba, Diecter c* the USEP, and Craig Cavis
Secretary General cf the W^ld Council for the Eicsph®re. >it£l
attracted hoel S’wi. hew Yo** Director c* the UK'S?, AI Baez,
Ch^l^r^n of the Conrlssion on Education cf the lUCh and Oohn
Fraser c' the Canada House cf Corons and femer Minister for
ErYir t rre"t.

On balance, in spite cf the clear potential fp^ inprprenent,
the Lake Louise Gathering, like that cf Delhi before it,
contributed sicnlficantly to the forging cf an effective irtema-
tlonal network cf e^lrovtsml educators wsrting nsre intelli-
oertly than before fer the ecological sustainability cf the
biosphere. Unruestionably, both workshops furthered significantly
the goal cf the I-tematlonal Society for Ervlrccrental Education
to lirk eduaters and educational croanlsaticrs on a scale enerrv
passlrq the Eanh s biosphere. The cftallenoe fer the futu^ Is to
extend this n*tworking and assessnen process to cthe- continents
building upon our experiences to date.

33S

Appendix A. THE BANFF DECLARATION

In October 190A. The North American Association for Envlron-
nental Education convened an International ireetlng on environmen-
tal education in Banff, Alberta. Canada, attended by representa-
tives from 20 rations, IncludlnQ several from the developing
»rorid. The conference was International not only in Its partici-
pants but also In the global nature of Its concerns.

Twelve years after the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment held In Stockholm In 1972, It Is evident that the
overall quality of life for vast numbers of people Is now worse
than It was, and that the state of the global envjronrw»nt conti-
nues to deteriorate.

Therefore, we as environmental educators, affirm that the
current educational approaches and the back-to-baslcs movement in
education will fall to meet the needs of numanlty unles ve begin
at once to address the serious environmental concerns that ore-
sently face every member of the world coinrunlty. The new basic
education must endow learners with environmental competencies
that will enable them to contribute to the resolution of local
and global problems and to the development of an ecologically
sustainable society. Such competencies will need to be suooorted
by a new environmental ethic that embraces the whole of the
natural order with which human societies must live in harmony for
survival. This movement trust achieve no less than an infusion of
the new environmental ethic Into every aspect of the educational
process.

In light cf this, we. the participants of the Banff Confer-
ence, call for an unprecedented effort of educators throughout
the world to restructure their entire educational programs, to
meet effectively the urgent needs of humanity and of the planet.

Approved October 8, 190d, by partlclpnts at the annual
conference of the North American Association for Environmental
Education, Lake Louise, Canada.

535

Pro325&3 P?c2n5n32tiErs cf the N*££ Serticns VtrksSDs cn
EnviroTS-tel Etfjcstion ln?E’‘ 2 tives
(LaVe Lcjise. 55**ff. Octoi>er 9. 19Si)

1 . In the sririta cf the Ba-ff Declaraticn. ve reccmend that a
"Elohal £nviro're''tal £c5jcatio*i Streteg'" be bsvisei vhich will
ircrc%e the resclution cf local and elabal e~vircrr>e''t 2 ! rrcble^.

2. We recoT^nd that envircmenial e±jcators sw^ort their e»n
value systems ty ^cinntng to reoard themselves as beinn at the
center, rather than on the periphery, cf eSjcatlonal concerns,
pslicy, c'^u'-res and institutions.

3. Because environmental edjcation is holistic, unavoidably cross
disciplinary, dyna-ic. and closely connected to nature and the
out-of-doors, we reccmend that strateoies to ciercor^ institu-
tional and fiscal restraints on field studies, classrooms without
walls, site visits, teat teachino and new educational aooroaches
be pursued with renewed crrfioence. enthjsiaso end vieor.

4. (a) We reconmsnd that envircnoental educators consider the
develoonent cf cumcula and c^c-aTes w^ich start at the perso-
nal end local level, and wMch also extend to inte'n»tio“8l end
trans-cultural ho'lcons. (b) Wfe further recotnenS that considera-
tion be given to the deieJoo^nt cf a world Snvircrrental Educa-
tion Fund to suooert and rake real the possibility cf the n»f
•envircn-entaJ ethic" called fc* in the Lake Lpuise Declaration.

5. In licht cf the ircon*jnce cf inferration to develoonent cf
sound environnental behaviour and decisions, in the develooinq as
well as the dsvslcoed world, (a) v-e recomend that envirorrental
educators place renewed erphasis on free access to end dissemina-
tion cf data on envinmemtal ratters, utilizing the nest edian-
ced and effective tools and technioues which rodem technolocy
has to offer, rakino special efforts to transfer this infcrration
technology to the developlno world, end (b) we recemend that
environrental educators place inreased emphasis on crmnications
skills dei'elop^t’ writing, soeaktno. orcanizino and natworkino,
and rore effective use cf conrunicetions channels.

6. We recomend that progra-nes end facilities which enable the
contlnuois and life long pursuit cf environmental knowledge be
developed in rany sectors cf society: bone and fenly, church,
comunity and nation, business end goverrrent. This calls for
extension of environsiental education technioues beyond conventio-
nal boundaries.

To inplenent these reomendationw it is PROPOSED* That the
K*£E Sections Worteshop, in the spirit of the Banff Declaration
forward the above re c omenJations along with the workshop reports
and keynote papers to the hAEE Board of Directors as our contri-
butions to the develcpnent of the first "Global Envirornental
Education Strategy."

E>fnRCK?BrT«. W-HUGEJEHT

ftiiasdiia fisii*

%r.’s desire fc- cltliats jsy snd cair'c't res lit ^lIT tc
ecUit retire’s frre coeds to t.*^* eitert cf r^a-Tti-c its r^trrel
csrecltlss ft* sslf-stiillmticr. s cts=03»-c2 c* t.'-is an-
rl^re dlsrs^s-r c" tre ircirt c* tress srtirltiss cr tre emrirr-
Tert. runerecs ervircrBiertil preciers rers i-iSEr.

1*5 soLtresst a-d east ^si 2 t.re rejf creclEsrs are I'creasj'c
p33:Utim dsrsity, retid trre‘*lssticr srd I-arstrial crevt-'-.
iTddswste feed. 5'd fiscletieri cf reicirtss. rtllrtiw* is s rev
rrea. To rest tre i'cr&isf'^ cena-d c" tire, ceccis dellt'»'ately
aedify t-re r-»tinl errlrtrrert li erte*- to In u ’ ore treir ojility
c* life. D*jt-cvi*^lf h^T9-. differed dareJnorert ertirjties
•sac?! as ctrstr.’ctiff: rreds. dsns, airtc^, I'^icsticr gre
se^srs^ syrtens. core* srd t*ia.*strUl fstilitlas rere

sore reyres ss lsf^ cr tre ervirerrert 1 ^ vriS' re* Ih-as.
s^a^es Ve ean.** •Mcft I* ts-* sret-ss Mn.

stsidyl '5 tre Irwcts c* tress eetlrttlss, it Is tsKt-
IfS to resonrerd a rerettnun « e^«rer. c.rt e*-til”lr, t'-is is
cct cf cassticn fc- erj* icold ret w-t to rey e frictla^ s' tre
ctIc* cf tecfrclojlrel stsTMtlx. Tectrcloelta! c^ifoe is a
r4it!Xial recssslty It « dereltcl"? »c-ld ard tres jiu-st ret be
-t rss tr.. fcrat Is ree^ 1$ tre ct r itett c* anrlrenne^l cl».“ri*c
an- rera^erer; cstrled idvt an cnoa-sta-dlr? cf tre etsSscital
esreecre. ret'eds a-d stills. X-d si-ce tre cretlsjr is ret crJy
Ibal brt $lttsl It its dlrerslcrs ard csrseofircas, tre solsticr
cm o-ly be a^-isved t^-scc^• 1-te— 'Ttleral coceeretls" i-d srts*--
stirdlcs arcr? rstlcrs iritT tre ricT ccenreas reltl-c tre ccc-
ares.

ire-e srecld bs ro daisy l~ tactll-g tre tasc o' sclrl*c tre
arYlrcnrertal p-eClens tetszse t^ey ^^T» s carolitire IrCiirt. If
rwedlil actlor is tatr c-iy at a lata- stao*. Its cost <(i!l
ca-sld»-atly ard tre Caroje Ir r ett c able H-srit Xs73).

Tre-a Is only ere »crld to ecllctee If t^is ere Is rriret, trare
Is re ctre-. s=-vlres cnly as Ib^ as tre ea-tr cr-rirss f-
re- f e ig " t fcTT.

Tre Eeosystan ard tre 2>Tlrcmert

Eocsjster a-d Errirennert' a-e we-ds •'“Id* c~s c-tan
Iscsaly Cefired. An ecosysten Is a relatively sa!f-cxts!*iid
systCT cf c ^ y -Isns ard ttelr erriraTnert. T'e stofy tre
*toijstani*s stroetzre ard fcctlcri-g. a*d Its tdanres !s l * o»n as

OSs»V'*itj. So2i Cm*. Zsiit

3J5

ecology. Ecologists exolore the Interactions between man and his
environment.

Environment, on the other hand, tray be defined as protec-
tion "The sum of all social, biological and physical or chemi-
cal factors which compose the surroundings of Man...". This
places emphasis on the broad scope of the environment In terms of
practically everything that surrounds man. This definition is
further elucidated by the •Stockholm Declaration" that "Man Is
both creator and moulder of his environment which gives him
physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellec-
tual. moral social and spiritual growth... Both aspects of man s
environment, the natural and the man made, are essential to his
well-being and to the enjoyment of bslc human rights, even the
right to life itslf" (Chamlett 1973).

Thus man is firmly located as part of the global ecosystem,
which depends on him as much as he depends on it even though the
view point of the environmental management process Is fundament-
ally that of Han (i.e.. the nanaoer) whose decisions determine
whether he himself or even the rest of the olobal ecosystem will
survive at all Royston and Perkosevkl 1975).

Classically, the total environment Is divided Into the atmo-
sphere hydrosphere, lithosphere (oeesphere) and the biosphere. ^
These divisions are some what arbitrary, because they are cc<role-
tely interrelated. Their basic characte-lsttcs are as follows'

Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth composed
Of the entire mass of air containing primarily nitrogen, oxygen,
water vapours, carbon dioxide and Inert gases.

Hydrosphere The aaueous envelope of the earth, Including the
oceans . STl lakes, streams, and subsurface waters, the water
vapour In the atmosphere, and water in the form of Ice,

Lithosphere The solid rocky portlwi of the earth made up of the
cnjT£~of' normal silicate rocks and the metal compound of silicate
material, the lithosphere surrounds the solld-llQUld core fSlde-
rosphere) of Iron and njckel alloy.

Biosphere * The biologic envelope that surrounds the globe con-
^aining and able to support life without the help of artificial
Systems. It penetrates into, end Is dependent on the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and the lithosphere.

The normal environment of man on the other hand consists of
the air. water, solid waste, noise, radiation, soil , wildlife,
timber, living space, etc. while his man-made envlronmert con-
sists of the work envlronnent, housing, technology, asthetlcs,
transportation, utilities and settlenont, etc.

These enyjronme.ntaj ronpwsotf cap ivp cs\'?siif3r^ j resm/-
rce to be exploited to fulfil the basic physical needs of the
people, they can be considered as facts of global knowledge base
which contribute to man $ Intellectual well-beina or they can be
Considered as a part of the eni^a which concerns man and his

339

role In the world, and his striving for a solution which will
provide the basis for a sense of purpose In life (Edntnd S Letey
1973 ).

Each corrponent can then be exairlned to see to what extent it
is affected by each activity of a given project. f\ thorouqh
knowledge of these envlrorcnental corpcoents Is essential in esta-
bllshino ervironnental priorities.

DEVELOFHENT AND ENVIROSKEKT

Tragedy of Conrcns

The atflesphere and the oceans which encorpass rest of the
globe are properties of comon usage. They are what we call the
cormons. They consist of all those attributes of the earth which
huTr.ans and other species jointly use. which is to say that there
Is no exclusive ownership right but rather ssne fom of comon
usage rights. The ocean ertccrpass shipping, comerce. fishing,
recreation, missiles ranges and research as well as fishes,
birds, sea plants and the hydrologic cycle of evaporation and
rainfall. The atmosphere as a con-on Is used by hiran beings and
other foiTS of living beings for breathing, and by conbustion
engine as a power source. However, this concept of corron ussgs
is the ideal only when population density is low. because when
the demands are more than the supply, what results Is the overuse
of the cormons which remorselessly generate tragedy.

This tragedy of conmcns develops In this way. Picture a
pasture open to all. Each herdsman will try to keep as many
cattle as possible on the commons. As a rational being, he seeks
to maximise Ms gain, so he thinks of the result to hln when he
adds one more cow to Ms herd. He later realises that this result
has one positive and one negative cor^nents. The positive corpo-
nent Is that with the addition of one cow. he increases his
profits from the sale of Its milk and thus the positive coTrponent
Is nearly +1. The negative corponent Is a function of the addi-
tional overgrazing created by one animal. Since however, the
effects of overgrazing are shared by ell the other men, the
negative component for any one herdsman Is only a fraction of - 1 .
So adding together the conponents. he realizes that the most
sensible thing to do Is to add another ccw to his herd. And
another, and another... until overgrazing results In erosion,
since the sa-ne decision is also taken by the other herckran. The
final result is the tragedy of eornoos.

Every iran Increases his herd without limit in a world which
Is United. Only a few benefit frov the short tern gain, while
the rest of society suffers. The users of the sea ineanwhlle.
believing that the resources are Inexhaustible continue to bring
species of fish and whales close to extinction (Carvel! and

540

Tadlock 1971).

In a reverse way. the tragedy of the c omo n s reappears In
probJers of pollution. Here It Is not a question of taking some-
thing out of corrons but of putting something In sewage, chemi-
cals. radioactive and heat wastes Into water; noxious end dar^-
rous fumes Into the air, and distracting and unpleasant objects
into the line of sight. Since rational man finds It cheaper to
discharge his wastes than to purify then before discharge he and
all others continue to do so, eventually “fwling their own
nest".

In short the concept of comons if Justifiable at all. Is
only Justifiable under conditions of low population density. The
control of himn population has had to be ebondoned in one aspect
after another. However, abanoonlng the concept of the comons
involves the curtallnent of sonebody s personal liberty. Cries of
rights and freedom wit) sooo fill the air If this ensues. What
if Instead of abandoning the total concept of the cc cnons the
necessity of abandoning the freedom to breed Is recognised?

The only way to stop the incoming cries of rights and free-
dom Is to nurture and preserve other end more precious freedoss
of the corrons by relinquishing the freedom to breed, and that
very soon. As Hegel would put It "freedom Is the recognition of
necessity end It is the role of education to reveal the necessity
cf denying tne freedom to breed to the present and the next
generation to follow. Only then, can the tragedy of the ccnn p fis
be put to an end.

The Limits to firowth

"If the present growth trend In world population, pollution,
food production, and resources depeletlon continue unchanged, the
llirits to growth on this planet will be reached sonetlres within
the next one hundred years". This Is the thesis of the limits to
growth, a controversial study by MIT teem led by Dennis Meadows
(Meadows et al. 1972).

Using a model developed by ccrputer experts, the Meadows
team translated five growth trends and their Interlocking rela-
tionships into mathematical terrs. They found that even under
the cost optimistic clrcurstances Including unanticipated techno-
logical breakthroughs by man of rejor significance, the limits to
growth would be reached by the year Z100 If present trend conti-
nues.

Further more the report says that the most probable result
will be a matter sudden and uncontrollable decline in both popu-
lation and Industrial capacity. The five major predicaments of
markind follow the sane pelteni. Population cannot grow without
food (they argue), food production is Increased by growth of
capital (more tractors, fertilizers, pesticides), core capital
requires more resources, discarded resources cause pollution.

341

pollution Interferes with the growth cf both population and food.

The key to the findings about the Units to growth is the
assunplion that the major growth trends, population, Industriali-
sation, food production, depletion of resources and enyiromrentel
degratlon. Increase In geometric progression. Growth thus Is slow
at the beginning but In a short time reaches a staggering level.

Collapse can only be avoided according to the authors, If
atari is prepared to limit growth and settle for a condition of
economic and ecloglcal stability. Population should be stabilized
by analysing birth and death rates. Industrial growth trust stop
except to replace the old facilities. Behavioural patterns must
change, man trust learn to prefer services, such as education and
recreation to material goods.

Many critics assert tftat "the limits to growth" overslnplJfy
reality, that little allowance Is made for reality, that tittle
allowance is made, for example, for human factors. If there Is
cause for deep concern, there rust also be cause for hope. Man
will prevail for he possesses powerful combination of know-
ledge , skills, tools and resources to promote economic growth
and to create an environment which Is a joy to live.

Concept of Quality of Life

The objective of development Is to Improve the oually of
life. In the beginning the quality of life (OOL) was visualized
In terms of standard of living (aiL) where

sot .

g Production
Kopuiaiion

how the Industrialized nations have witnessed the deterlora-*
tion of the environment and the mode) for the quality of ■''life
(OOL) has changed as follows* '

jyj. ^ t Productlon -t; losses , Servlces/Tlme Experl ence/Tlme
Population Production Population

The model Includes losses because goods have a limited
useful life, and as lutertal conforts, it Is likely that the goM
life is defined be services, and as services become more abundant
the emphasis may increase but experiences ere likely to decrease
because of the growing deterioration of the environment.

So as rot to overuse the Halted environmental resources
which would otherwise reduce the quality of the life of man, an
optimum balance between econonic development and envlrom^ntal
control should be maintained In developmental planning within a
country, for man to live a quality life. For what use Is It. If
In promoting economic growth, man creates an environment which Is
not a Joy to live.

Inpact of Develo;*nent on the Environme n t

The urge for economic progress is conon to all developing
nations. Massive developmental activities ere being undertaken
to meet and satisfy the demands for hloher standards of living of
an ever-increasing population. The lack of capital goods and the
foreign exchange to purchase then abroad are the major bottle-
necks in development efforts. Because of an outright disregard of
the Impact of these activities on the environment, the results
will surely be the exhuastion of the natural resource products
as agricultural end eouatlc comodlties. oil minerals and timber
and in the long run. enwlrotmental problems which reduce the
quality of life.

The development of natural resources for economic benefit is
desirable, unless accompanied at rates, and by means detrimental'
in the long run. Viether resource development programes prove to
be beneficial or destructive depends largely on how far scienti-
fic knowledge is applied in their fonnilation and on the ability
of government agencies to control their Implementation (Conway
and Rofirn 1973). In south east Asia the Impulse for rapid econo-
mic development Is far stronger than the social Incentives for
sclntiflc investigation or for the advancement of capabilities In
govemn^nt management of resources.

Managing the Environement

Man draws upon cofnponents of his natural end societal envi-
ronment to sustain his various activities which are aimed at
satisfying his needs and these activities In turn have irpaet or
repercussions on the components of his envlronent (Lohenl end
Thauh 1977). Environmental management rust regulate the demands
of man In such a manner that the ability of the same environment
to sustain his development will remain onlmpalred. This Is easily
seen in the figure given below:

HUMAN ACTIVITIES

/ Actor \

/ Values \

/ Needs \

SOCIETAL

NATURAL

343

Key Concepts of Cnvlronrsntal Kanageaent

For envirerw«ntal nanageffieftt to be effective and systematic.
It must consistently, Mitbln the existing limitations of knowle*
dge (Garlauskas 1975), visualise all processes (natural and artl-
flcai) in total perspectlcve, recognise and understand any pro-
cess or problem in the structure and Its ccrpenents Interrela-
tionships. be able to manipulate or otherwise deal with the
interdependences characterising the process or operation as a
wiwie. be able to design, build and operate the nanagenent system
which would serve as a means to manage any whole.

The activities of man affecting the egulllibrium between him
and the environment can be arbitrarily classed as unbalancing and
co-pensatlng factors. In examining the stress anti-stress pat-
terns, It can be seen that advances in higher level technology
with irproved medicine have reduced the death rate and lengthened
human life span. The increased population and the resulting
demands have Imposed a variety of stresses on the dynamic eguill-
briim between r.an and the environment.

Envlrorenental nanagement and science employ the following
three concepts.

Systems Approach A procedure which recognices the relationship
between natural and ran-rade systems, between systems and analy-
sts and ranagement technloues and the critical role od the human
factor.

System Analysis A technique of problem forrulation, issue defl-
nition, and part Insight. Systems analysis concerns itself to
finding solutions to a oroblen and does not concern itself with
appplying those solutions. It consists of techniques that can be
used to find solutions.

Systems Hanagerent Consists of actual techniques of managefrent
foT sol VI ng proo l ems such as CF«fPERT. PPeS, CSPCS/SE and others.
These techniques prescribe a measurable path to achieve stated
environmental correctives with milestones along with the way to
chart progress.

Essentials of an Environmental Policy

In fomulatlng environmental policy, the Importart
considerations listed below must be taken Into account.

1. It njst extend over a long tern and 1^ capable of dealing
with many contingencies.

2. It must be flexible to allow for the excercise of politi-
cal judgement and refinement with tine.

3. It rust outline a strategy for Irplementatlen through
tine.

4. It must focus on the changing patterns of behaviour and
include implementation plans.

-structuring of declsloo-maklng

344

—definition of national properties
— adninistrative structure
—rationalizing legislations

5. It must be able to accormodate simultaneously the past,
present and future.

6. It nust be designed to mlninize misuse or use for other
purposes

7. It Should aim at enforcement.

e. It should be a synthesis of activities > not just concen>
trate on pollution studies.

9. It rust face the problem of public participation - educa-
tion, inputs, complaints.

10. It frust Include a strategy for collecting information and
application and dissemination.

11. It should define responsibilities particularly vrith res-
pect to the most Important issues.

12. It trust strike a balance between generalities and specia-
lities.

An environmental act should embrace all the vital components
interacting In the energy-resource and environment system.

CONCLUSl^S

The problem Is that many developing countries feel that
concern for environmental Issues Is a luxury and an added finan-
cial burden to them in their efforts to achieve economic and
social progress. Being rore concerned with development, these
countries assume that environmental deteriortlon must be risked
for economic growth.

To improve the quality of life (OOL) however, environmental
quality and development must go together. Envlronemental manage-
ment must undertake the task of regulating man's activities in
such a manner that the ability of the same envlronemt to sustain
his needs is unitroaired. Any developmental endeavour must be ac-
companied by environmental impact assessment methods and environ-
mental management concepts, strategies and skills, for a balanced
and dynamic equilibrium collaborative efforts and understanding
among nations is a must for finding a feasible and rationsl
solution to the problem of maintaining an dynamic ecullibrium
for a quality life.

REFERENCES

Carwell and Tadiock, 1971. It*s Too Late. Glencoe Press, Glencoe,
Illinois.

Chamlett, E.T. 1973, Envlronemntal Protection. McGraw Hill, New
York.

Convay, G. and Rcrra, 0. 1973. Ecology and P^sources Osveloprent
In South East Asia. A ReDort. ford Foundation. Saw York.

Dfckert. T.fi. and D^ny. K.R. (Eds.) 1979. Envlrorr^tsl Ir^act
Assessrent: Guidelines and Cementary. University Extension,
University of California, Berkeley.

Edrvnd. S. and Letey. J. 1973. £nvlrx>rrental A2“instratlons.
kcGraw Hill, I»&w York,

Garlauskas. A.B. 1975, Conceptual fra-etork of Envlrorrental
H^naoerent. J. Environ. Kenage. 3' 165*203,

Lohani, B.H. and Yhauh. H.C. 19n. Rural Develocrent end its
Envlrorriental Irpact Assessrent In South East Asia. Proceed-
ings of the intemattenal Conference on Rural Develop^nt
Tecnnology- An Integrtea Approach. Aslan Inst. Technol.,
Bangkok.

Ksadovs, D.H., Heedcws. D.I., Renders, J.. and Eerenson, M.H.
1972, LlBits to Grwth. A Peprct for the Club of kens s
Project on the Predlce-ent of Henkind. University Book. I.ew
York.

Royster. H.G. and Perkosevkl. J.C. 197S. Ueten-inatlon of the
Priorities of Actors In the fra-ework of tnvlronrental y^na~
geront. J. Envlrco. Conserv. 22.

Vagner, j.a, ig70. ort?.fth versos the cuallty of life. Science
159: 1179-1216.

World Bank Croup (lORC, lOA and IFC). 1975. Enviromental Deve-
locnent. Hew York.

A COASTAL ZONE RANA6EHENT PROGRAHHE FOR KERALA STATE

M. Biba*

INTRODUCTION

The coast Is an interaction zone of land and sea. The sea
coasts, because of their rich fauna and flora and their access to
the water transport, have attracted the settleinent of populations
from time iirmemorlal. The rich fisheries and easy navigational
facilities lead to various industrial . commercial, civil and
other developmental activities. This in turn have resulted in the
further population growth. So. these developments have definitely
brought considerable growth in the coastal economy. But. many of
the flevelopmental programmes which are traditionally independent
and irrational, may produce Innumerable conflicts and problems in
its wake.

The picture of the coastal zone of Kerala, which is about
560 km long is not different. The fortyonc west flowing rivers,
which at the coast transform to lakes and estuaries before join-
ing the sea, bring enonwus guantltles of nutrients and soils
making the waters and land highly fertile supporting rich fisher-
ies and high agricultural productivity. The irrational develop-
ment of this coastal zone without takirg into account the limita-
tions of its natural environment, has led to intensive coastal
erosion, pollution of its water bodies. land and air, silting of
waterways and ports etc. (Baba 1985a). This paper looks into the
capabilities of tnis coast, its limitations and problems and
suggests a coastal zone management progratrme, with all its compo-
nents. as a potential tool inolving the problems and in maintain-
ing the quality of the coastal environment and Its balanced
development.

TKE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS RESOURCES
Geographical Setting

Kerala, the tiny state in the southwest of India, is bounded
b.'j St* Vfft
west, has a total length of 560 kn. The state is divided into
highland, midland and lowland, in which the latter has a height
of less than 8 m above NSL (Fig. 1), For convenience this portion

'Centre for Earth Science Stuiies, neoional Centre, Cochin-682016.

347

wMch Is about 1C-151 of the total area, Is referred to as the
coastal zone (until a suitable definition Is discussed in the
last chapter). Forty ore urest flowing rivers reach the sea
through this coastal zone, the najor ten rivers carry nearly
45,060 nitll. cu.m water per year. Many of these rivers are darmed
for the purpose of power generation or Irrigation. Host of these
rivers before Joining the sea drain Into the backwater systems
like Vetnbanadu. Ashtamutfi, etc. The backwater and river systems
in the coastal zone are Interconnected and supports eiOkm coastal
waterway. These water bodies have considerable socio-economic
Influence on the Kerala s coastal zone. Kerala is most densely
populated (25.4SS million, based on I98i census) In India with
the coastal zone sharing about one-third of It. Average density
In the coastal zone Is 1500 persons per so, km |Flg. 2). Hear the
urban centres It Is more than 2000. with some selected areas near
Cochin, Trivandrum, Calicut. Tel 1 Icherry etc acceninodetlng even
much higher concentration. The growth rate Is also much higher In
the coastal belt.

Resources of the Coastal Zone

The major renewable resources available along this coastal
zones are water, agriculture and fishery, and the non-renewable
resources Include mlonerals, soils, sand etc. The details are
given in Baba 11985 a). The water resources ere surface end
groundwater, in which the latter has considerable potential for
development, as a major drinking water source. The agricultural
products Include coconuts, rice, tapioca, cashew etc. The marine
fisheries production here is estimated at of country s total
production. The fishing area is about 25000 so. km and the fisher*
men population represents 3.iH of State s population. In addl*
tlon. nearly an egual number is involved in the mechanised fish-
ing sector and its related industries. The inland fishing is also
prevalent in the coastal zone.

The mineral resources potential of this coastal zone is
weak, except for the placer deposits, which occupies the pride of
Place In India. A recent estimate shows (5CST 1982) that this
coast has 23 million tonnes of iJnenite and 1.3 million tonnes of
rutile, mainly concentrated In the Heendakara and Kayamkulam
belt. Clays, glass sands and llm^shell deposits are also reported
along this coast.

Developments In the Coastal Zorn’

Due to the high population density and favourable environ-
ment. this coastal zone has undergone substantial development.
Out of the fourteen, seven district headquarters, all the three
municipal corporations of Trivandnan, Cochin and Calicut and five
municipal towns (excluding district headquarters) are situated

348

within the narrow stretch of the coast (Fig. 2). At least half of
the total industrial concerns of Kerala are situated along this
coast, with a maxltnum concentration at Cochin. These include rare
earths, chemical, fishery, coir and boat building Industries.

Major part of the coastal areas are connected by roads,
railway and water transport systens. Both the airports of Kerala
at Trivandrum and Cochin are situated In the coastal zone. The
major port at Cochin, which Is the second largest in the west
coast of India, has played an isiportant role In the economic
development of the State as a whole, this part of the coast in
particular. There are 14 more Intermediate or minor ports along
the Kerala coast.

Out of the 560 km coastal belt, 370 km of the coast Is found
to undergo erosion (Fig. 3). To combat this, a series of struc-
tures, mainly sea walls and groins have been constructed along
more than half of the eroding portion. Two major schemes like the
Thanneermukkam bund and the Thottappally spillway have been cons-
tructed to control flooding and salt-water Intrusion into the
rice-granary of Kerala, the Kuttanad belt. The high density of
population In this zone has necessitated a large scale housing
development In the coastal zone. Near the urban centres the
density of housing has reached such alaming proportions that the
fisherman even encroach the newly accreted beaches, which are
quite unstable; Oue to the presence of a large number of urban
and Industrial centres, this coastal zone in addition to all the
above, has established considerable amount of ccrmerclal, recrea-
tional, educatinal and other facilities, adding to the pressure
already existing in this area.

EKVIRONHENTAL PROBLEMS

The natural coastal environment, coupled with its develop-
ment progrannes have, no doubt, boosted that economy of the’ State
as a whole . However, certain development prograrmes and the non-
consideration of certain environmental limitations of this narrow
strip in the planning process have invited considerable amount of
problems and conflicts in Its wake.

Coastal Erosion

The erosion has become critical for Kerala State, which is
already facing the shortage of land due to Its high density of
population. Various coastal protective measures, mainly seawalls
have been adopted from time to time to protect this coastal land
..om the attack of the sea. Now, it is believed that these are
the only remedial measures for coastal erosion. But, it Is obser-
ved that these structures help the coast only in a few places; in
others they get damaged or damage the neighbouring coasts due to

349

350

down coast/end erosion. The down coast erosion is also seen at
the shipping channel , harbour structures, mudbanks, etc. which
obstruct the littoral drift along the coast. The other methods
suggest^ like vegetative fencing, beach nourishment and break-
waters are neither fully studied nor attempts made to implement
them (Watts 1965, Monl 1972, Gaba 1979a, 1981b). The danger will
continue and may Increase with increase In population and human
acivltles viz., urbanization, construction of dams, prevention of
soil erosion on the midland and highland of the State, develop-
ment of harbours etc. (Baba 1979b) unless early suitable solu-
tions are sought.

Encroachment of Beaches and Coastal Lands

The Kerala s beaches are very fragile end they are the
result of cyclic sedimentary processes. One beach, which is main-
tained for a particular period, may not necessarily remain there
for ever. The occupation of these lands are hazardous. In spite
of the few warnings by certain Governmental agencies, and the
regulation of the Govt, of India to keep 500 m as buffer zone,
the laws of the State do not fully prohibit such occupations.
(The Slate issues title deeds to the encroachers). This leads to
great to the life and property during the rough seasons and It
becomes the liabi llty of the Governmnet to rehabilitate this
population and even to feed them for a long period. Some regula-
tions based on systematic planning are required for housing
development in the coastal zone.

Coastal Flooding and Salt water Intrusion

Flooding due to heavy rainfall is a coftmon feature in the
coastal zone of Kerala State. In addition, to the natural reasons
as mentioned above, the urbanization end construction of artifi-
cial structures, reclamation of wet lands and others also contri-
bute to this. Every year the salt water intrusion into the agri-
cultural lands due to flooding create problems to the coastal
agricultural population along the Keraia coast. It needs mention
that some measures such as construction of bunds like Thanneer-
mukkam, Thottappally spillway etc. are undertaken to solve this
problem, but they have created only further technical, social,
economic and environmental problems vrfilch reduire a comprehensive
Study.

Coastal Pollution

Even though pollution of the coastal waters and lands has
not reached the measure by which It Is observed in the advanced
countries, rapid industrlallratlon and urbanization of certain
areas has brought this monster to this region. The water of the

351

ivp Mvers namely Chaliyar. Chalalcudi, Periyar. Pairba ard
laia and t^e maiaor backwaters like Vembanadu and Asbtamudiare
subie tpfi tn pollution (Fia 3) due to the indiscrurinate dis-
charce of effluents from the industries, untreated sewage from
the municiDalitics aM wastes and ch«incals from aoncultural
operations It is oererallv believed that the estuaries and seas
can be freely used for the discharge of effluents on the pretext
that this salire waters are useless for consuirption, irrigation
etc However their iirpacl on the marine living resources have
been presently understood.

The pesticides, insecticides, water hyacinth, salvinia etc.
also cause considerable problems in the coastal waters. Among
these the salvinia and water hyacinth reoulres special mention,
as their instantaneous multiplication capability has caused its
spreading \n all the water bodies and even agiicultural lands
blocking water transportations and agricultural practices along
the Kerala s coastal yone. A suitable measure to contain this
menace is yet to be evolved. Another problem worth mentioning is
the land pollution due to waste and sewage disposal, especially
in the urbanized localities. This along with the pollution of the
water bodies have reduced the quality of the oroundwater. which
is the tna}or source of orlnKlno water in the coastal zones.

Conversion of wetlands

In Kerala, after Independence, due to the scarcity of usable
land and due to urbanization, the conversion of wetlands of the
coastal zone for housing, transport, industries and agriculture
has become a regular phenomena. The backwaters are coverted as
paddy fields. Paddy fields are converted as coconut plantations.
Once the land achieves some stability it attracts civil and
cofiinercial activities. This may be feas'ble in some areas, but
hazardous in most of the regions due to the saltwater Intrusion,
seasonal flooding, ecological impacts, etc. tnoerred by it.
Althouah It may be necessary to reclaim land from socio-economic
considerations proper investigations should be carried out prior
to the implertentation of such schemes, so that the land develop-
ment does not lead to outer environmental problems.

Over-Population

To concentrate all the industries and urban development in
the coastal zone is a world-wide process. This may be due to the
easiest and most convenient transportation facilities available
there and also due to the difficulty in finding out a place more
convenient for waste disposal than the sea coast. The urbaniza-
tion has attracted the population from the interior. If the
present trend continues without proper control and planning a
coastal zone development programme will become more dear in the

353

nearest future. Iwiediate tJroqratmes are required to control this
exodus from villages to urban centres and also for improving the
health, enployirent. housing, cultural and economic conditions of
the coastal population.

Cormercial Fishing Problerris

Fishing industry during the past fifteen years witnessed
rapid strides in Kerala, first due to the intensive research and
secondly due to the partlaJ irechanisatlon of the Industry, But
major part of the industry still runs with traditional crafts and
gear. OocKlng facilities are poor and the seawalls, which are
spread throughout the coast, obstructed the shore based fishing.
There exists disputes between the traditional and mechanized
sector. In the recent years, there had been sore decrease in the
total production, which is supposed to be due to overfishing.

In addtion to all the above, there are nary more socio«
economic problems requiring immediate atentiwi.

POTENTIALITIES OF KEMU COAST

In spite of various oroblems faced by the coastal zone there
Is considerable potential for develeoprent in a large number of
areas. Among the resources already exploited, there are a few
which can accowodate further development. These Include the
balanced development of the traditional and mechanised fishing
industry (also sguaculture). fishing harbours and other fish
landing centres, fuller exploitation of the groundwater potential
for drinking purposes etc. In addition to these, the developments
in the following fields are going to be vital not Just for the
coastal zone, but for the entire country with our march towards
the twenty-first century.

Inland and Coastal Water Transport

A good inland water transport facility existed along this
coast in the recnt past, with its 810 km of navigable length
connecting Trivandrum in the sooth and Badagara In the north.
These Inland waters are navigable even during the monsoon season.
Even though now this has been overtaken by roads and railways. In
the very near future with the restraints In further exapanslon of
the latter systems, the re-establlshement of the water transport
system, which wlii be cheaper and more hanronious to the coastal
environment, has substantial scope. With very calm coastal seas
(Baba et al. 19fi5bJ for more than 6 months contiruousiy, another
cheaper mode of transport namely coastal steamer or boat service,
could be started along thlscoast.

3S4

Offshore Placer and Sand Deposits

With the present extraction of the placer deposits froa the
beaches, the related Industries cannot survive for very long.
Latest surveys by nany agencies reveal that there Is considerable
scope for Dining these Oeposits fron the near Inner continental
shelf of Kerala, where the beaches have once existed, but now got
sutcerged with the raising sea le-el.

One of the efficient rethods of solving the coastal erosion
problem, which Is very severe In Kerala, is beach nourlshaent
(Watts 1965, Baba 1979a) for which large Quantities of sand are
reculred. In order to build up the beaches without disturbing the
delicate sand balance, their deposits In the offshore have to be
located. There are indications of rich deposits, even in the fore
of shals which are very convenient for extraction, at rany loca-
tions, a cuantltatlve estlrgte of which is yet to benade.

Future Enercy ProcraTne

Also another irrortant area %^hlch will attract considerable
d8velepr«nt. particularly tn the coastal ?one. Is the ocean based
enemy prooranne, which Include the Ocean Thensal Energy Conven-
tion (OTECJ, energy frcn wa>es and tides etc. With th* present
day eneroy crisis and llritattcns In the energy production free
the traditional sources such as hydral, therrgl, nuclear, etc, by
the turn of the century, the coastal tone Is going to play an
unbelievable role In the enercy precrarre frcn the above non c on—
ventlonal sources. This eay have to be looked into In any coastal
zone elannlnc schem,

Recretlonal Oervinds

The cultural heritage and natural beauty of the Kerala "s
coastel zone with its backwater systeos. greenery, coconut gar-
dens, tropical cliir-ate, golden beaches etc., have all the poten-
tial to develop a profitable tourist industry. Very few atteepts
are rafle to tap this potential resource. Kovalau beach resort is
perhaps the only rajor tourist attraction developed along the
Kerala -s coastal zone. Recreation nay beccoe an essential c oepo-
nent of the life of future Industiraltzed society who will be
exposed to increased strains in the day-to-day life. If the
coastal zone recreation facilities are not preserved and d^lop-
ed new. they wy disappear in the nearest future with the present
rate of growth of pressures in this area,

Oevelecrent of Historical and Archeeologlai Sites

Kerala with its rich cultural heritage haS rany other histo-
rical and archaeoloQlcal Dcnomnis along Its coastal zone.

^55

were destroyed due to coastal erosion and few others by man. The
forts of Trlvardrum, Anjengo. Fort Cochin. Cranoanore. Cannanore,
TelUcherry ard Bekal. various churches, temples ard mosoues are
a few worth trertlonlng. These tronuments which survived the atro-
cities of nature need protection for the future generations to
know their cultural heritage and past glory. They have tremendous
tourism potential as well.

Resource Constraints

For the large population accumulated In the coastal rone,
the resources are limited and It requires Judicious exploitation.
Also the environmental Impacts cue to the explpltatlon of these
resources may be severe, but car be tackled with proper planning.

A terrain evaluation programme to help users to understand
the type of location and Its suitability for their particular use
will reduce detrimental Impacts on coastal areas. This will help
the coastal comunlty of Kerala where the terrain is very limited
and dear, for better utiiratlon of Its resources In the most
productive manner.

Need for a Data Banx

The pressures on the coastal rone mentioned earlier need
inredtate attention. But in order to arrive at solutions for
various problems and to frame a napagement policy for the coastal
3one the available data, which |$ scattered In many archives and
Institutions 1$ not sufficient. This fact necessitates a program
for the collection of data, essential for determining the manage-
ment and develocwent criteria of the coastal zone.

So the first malar task should be to collect all the availa-
ble data on this zone and to fomulate proarammps (or the collec-
tion of other data which are not available readily. The data bank
thus created will feed necessary informatlcmi reauired for formu-
lating the coastal zone management policy of the Kerala State.

RELEVANCE OF COASTAL ZONE HAMAGEHENT FOR KERALA

*in tne doove sedt’ions var'tous prdo'iems and some deve'lotxren-
tal requirements were discussed independently. Detailed examina-
tion of these problems themselves ard their possible solutions
reveals the Interrelationships between the various problems. To
solve one. solution for many other have to be found sltruitanecus-
ly. A classic example Is the coastal erosion.

Coastal Erosion; A Management Problem

Coastal eoston recurring every year Is one of the blogest
problems faced by the State. The problems associated with the

3S6

357

intensive coastal erosion include loss of valuable beaches and
agricultural land, washing away of houses and other civil objects
dlslccatlng the coastal population, loss of revenue which is
spent on their rehabilitation, stoppage of fisheries and other
navigational activities, silting of ports and harbours, Influx of
saline water into agricultural lands daraglng the crops etc.
(Flq, a). Some structural measures are bema adopted to arrest
the erosion, it Is observed that these treasures are not enough to
solve all the problems mentioned avovp. because they are Ineffi-
cient In seme coasts and they endanger the natural sediment drift
(Baba 1979b). which Is essentiai to maintain the coastal sediment
balance. In many places they obstruct the fishing activity and
also the aesthetics of the coast, which Is an Important factor
wh“n we think in terms of the tourism development potential of
the coast.

Causes of coastal erosion are attributed not only to the
direct parameters such as waves, currents, tides, geonorphology,
aeological properties of the coast and sediments etc., but also
to indirect factors such as deficiency in sand supply to coasts
due to (a) cmstnjction of ports and harbours. |b) construction
“f p e voirs in rivers, (c) dredoing activity at the river
mouths, estuaries and backwaters, and (d) other obstacles in the
coast such as seawalls, groins, sewage pipelines, river outlets,
mud banks, head lands and others (Baba 1979b). Also ether pres-
sures on the coastal :one like the accumulation of oopulatlon in
one area, which ray be due to (ej the intensive fishing In the
area. (b1 the Inability to live In some particular areas due to
high pollution, flooding or inaccessibility or (c) any other
coroierclal, social or geooraDhical reasons. lead to unbalancd
d*veloomentBl activities which may disturb not only the geogra-
pMcal balance but also the eauallbrlun of the neighbouring
beaches causing their erosion or accretion. The intensive dredg-
ing of beach sands for minerals (e.g.. Chavara) and reclamation
(e.tj., Andhakaranazhl , Telllcherry, etc.) purposes is also attri-
buted to as one of the reasons for erosion.

If we take all the above situations which are peculiar to
the Kerala State, Into conslderatlrn. It can be seen that the
problem of coastal erosion cannot be solved by structural methods
alone I.Walts 1965^ Kurup 1974^ Baba 1979bv I9aia.> kVwi
This problem is closely related to the fishery Industry, mining
Industry, harbour dvelopment, housing and agricultural patterns,
transport systems and others {Flo. 4 ). So the solutions can be
achieved only through a r^ragement programe with the following
broad objectives:

(a) Solve the existing problerrs of this zone such as erosion,
housinq. pollution, overfishing, over-concentration of population
confining all the developnental prograjnes to one place simulta-
neously;

(b) prevent future problems through proper planning, and

Budget Allocations and Conflicts Achieved

The vastness of the oroble and the lusiflcation for a mana-
oeffent orooraarfe can understood by the budget allocations made
by the Governmnt Of Kerala ana the Government of India on diffe-
rent aspects related to the coastal zone (Table 1) in the sixth
five year olan oeriod of WB 63 the Kerala Government had plans
to spend aoprox Rs lao crores on this rone of the total outlay
of Rs 20DO crores for the plan period This amount does not
include more than Rs 107 crores spent by Government of India In
this coastal rone

At this ooint the Question being asked is whether these
investments are achievino the regulred coals'’ These investments
and the imolementina aoencies do their tob within the sphere of
their activity There are hundreds of agencies and departments
under the local bodies ^tate and Central Governments working in
the coastal rone (Table 2 ) addressino to various oroblems. Very
often these aoencies have conflictino resoonsibil.tles op over-
laoDino lurlsdiction For example the State P W D (with great
enthusiasm) try to protect the erodino fragile beaches which,
they are not sure how lono will be protected by the present
protection measures In the meanwhile the Revenue Department and
the Fishermen Welfare Corooration Issue land deeds and construct
houses respectively on thi> fraoile beach land to the illiterate
coastal cowunity On another front the Governfrent of India is
mining for rare earths a j conslroctino national highways on the
beaches without much concern about the ham it does to the
delicate eguihbnum of the beaches or without examining th ways
by which to restore the beaches or without any concern about the
subseouent damage to these interests themselves in foreseeable
future in the absence of beaches

The Need for Manaoement

The relevance of a Coastal Zone Management Programme is to
be viewed in this context Taking into account various agencies
involved in themanagement of the different aspects of the coastal
zone the functions of the Coastal Zone Management Policy should
be to correct two fundamental short comings of the present mana-
nement or regulation systems These are (i) lack of overall
coordination of the reoulatory authorities that are already in
existence and 111 ') inadeouate consideration of coastal resources
and their use constraints in the decision making process (Brahtz
1980) Correction of these basic management diff iciencies should,
in turn, greatly facilitate the solution of many soeciflc prob-
lems and lead to the overall development of the coastal zone.

With the diversity of the problciPS and their inultidiSCiDlinary
nature the coastal zone reanaoeirenr rav have to be viewed more as
an environmental rather than an enotneerinq orohlem

Any area having many conflicts over different uses within it
requires an efficient tranaopment pracreir^ to desionate oriori
ties and assure balanced develooment with least oamane to indivi
dual units

COASTAL 20NE HANAGEKEHT PROGRAMME tOR KERALA

The planning and management of the coastal ?cnc oroi/ide
facilities for conservation of coastal resources its balanced
exoloitatlon, overall develoonent and a net ■“connric orowth of
the state and the country as a whole For exaitole the L) A
passed a Coastal 2Qre Manaoement Act in 1^72 to provide federal
Incentives to States and Local Goverments to develoo and then
ifiplement effective Coastal Zone Management Programres (Baba
19858) This has helped various states there tc reduce the conf-
licts considerably and to plan balanced deveiorment of the coast
(Washom 1974) Similar proorannes have be^n implemented by many
other oountPles like France Australia Finland USSR and Japan

Alms and Objectives

Coastal Zone Management Policy for'^eHterala coast should
have the following alms

1. To enact necessary policies and legislation tn control various
uses of the coast and for the balanced Oevelooment of the coastal
rone with maximum benefit to the coastal copulation and maximum
protection to Its environs

il To coordinate the activities of ex'stino local State and
central implementlna agencies, without enfcrcino any chances in
their prevent Jurisdiction, but to uphold total cause of the
coastal zone as laid down in the policy

The policy thus adopted for the management of the coastal
zone will have thefoHowlno broad obbjectives

- Prevention of coastal erosions

- Beach front protection and develocemert

- Wni'nq or' sano' tor beach nourishment and reclamation

- Pollution control

- Conservation of ecosystems
Protection of life and property

- Control of develoDment

- Development end management of water, minerals, fisheries
and other coastal resources

- Port and harbour dvelopment

- Develcoment of coastal land

- Houslno development

- Recreational and tourism development

300

- Ccrtrrlle3 Cvelroneit cf cssstsl v?t Iz'tis:

- I)?vsla 7 "e^ and cf ccsrtal «teTv»ys:

- tevelxne-t cf lanS syrters;

- E'lsrcy d?velDp-ie*t trE'*s'iss!tn scfieres

OniLOSlt-S A OiASTAL ZCTiE f'AVtSO.T FOIICT

In c-sar ts riuge tss coastal zone, e psJlcy ray have ts t»s
C'cftes In this, tne coastal iomsaries, areas rer-’lfing partl-
c-ie- atte^icn rvi t-ne aoencies to be jnnlveg nave to be iden-
*ifie2 ans a C-aft creoa*Td for tJe aoo*wal cf tbe State

CIS C^'tral BcverTV'LS.

j Coastal BonSf^-

The s^e^arC anc lenc^nJ toaniarles cf tbs coastal zone ray
•■ave to b® iararcatfrS first. TSe seaward bounSary ray be flved £3
es to tbs e^.ir* teTTltcrlal vaters bcrs^rtng terale

State Tn= landward trrreary cay have to be tedded fere judlci-
a.sly as it I'^lves raiirir trses to be ranagsd and conflicts
•^sshso alteratives are c^o o os&d.

1 to intluoe tbe e-t!re ares tetarceteS as Icwlani, I.e,
t>»lb* £ tt elevation, cr

2. to nolute t**® tbtes ftriciotl eyrcr a tions. t-Se t>elve
cosstal rvicioalities end all tb® coastal osnchayats.

3. as 1- case c' Contecticct s coastal bcwndary (Corneotl-

c-t CZ*" iSTs). to cover tbe areas wbcee ra-a o ere’t is

necessary to cs-trol vses w^icb have e Cirett tn- slantficet
iroart cr coastal wne-r. coastal areas cf oartlculer concern
(s*4 below fc^ tetaileO tescrictJo*). waters csrtslring e sloni-
ficat otallty cf $®»»tt€r. salt rascbes and v^tlands, beacbes.
i'^®*tic»l ar®!S subject to i»?re inOjted flooding and

a'eas co'tai*’in; v®o=tation tnat Is salt tslerai and saltwater
o®bente*t and islands.

Aront tbs t^’re®. tb® first two ray b® co~venlert froii tb®
o‘~ysiDc-aoblc c^ aS’i-istrative sense, but ray have tbe (Jrawbacfcs
that It crrtain e»ees. w^icb do net have ary relation to tbe
coastal activity: sore areas *ricb ere cn tbe coast, but do not
tet incluteS {e.c. islands, coastal cliffs, fo r ertLrl es etc.) cr
tbe area is too laroe to fcrirc tETte' a eaneoensnt y^ o o^ a ff. Tbe
third alte—ative eooears to be lar-e edaytatle frsr tbe vlewoolrt
c* e~vironnsnal rrctertlcn cf tb* coastal zone. It cay also *b*
possible to adort a two tier rysta* (Ccrnecticut's CZV P r ogr a a,
1=7=) in vMch to teal tbe vzjcr canaoenent Issues tbe bou^ry
based on tbe third elte’~rtive and fc»- sore selected b'njsder end
low nmty issues, tbe second *lte»natlve are cbosen.

hover®**, a tetail®d study cay te repaired before arrivins at
a conriujicn as recarcs to tbe coastal lendvard bondary. In
oecidinc t'-is t-be ccjectives cf tbe ZD* trygr t s have to be kect

3S1

In view alcng wit ,e administrative and funding capabilities of
the governments, local bodies, etc.

tl. Areas of Particular Concern-

Under any coastal zone management program, it would be
convenient and more advantageous, if specific areas having con-
flicts over different uses, are given top priority and special
attention, [n identifying these areas, the social . economic and
ecological factors inay provide the major guidelines. Areas having
very high density of population, areas affected by Intensive
beach erosion, places where Intensive dredging and reclamation
activity is undertaken or planned, highly polluted environs,
areas with a significant impact on ecosystems, areas of high
historic and recreational value threatened of annihilation, etc.,
may be considered for this.

In order to have a rational assessment in the selection of
areas of particular concern, a scientific study may be regulred.
Proper care has to be taken to see that these decisions are made
based only cn the above study and not under ether socio-political
pressures.

111. Existing Coastal Regulatory Agencies and Their functions
One of the major aspects to be dealt with In framing a
policy Is the role of the existing agencies in the successful
Hrplemsntatlon of tne coastal zone management prograrme. it may
be remerrbered that, there are all essential regulations and
Implementing departments or agencies, even at present, with the
major drawback that each of them attend to their Individual
tasks. This creates considerable conflicts and restraints in the
use of coastal resources and facilities. So, an optirrum utiliza-
tion IS reouired of all these local bodies, departments, corpora-
ticns, judiciary etc., with proper coordination to the maximum
benefit of the coastal rone. Hence before framing a policy. It Is
necessary to study the existing administrative and management
facilities, their areas of activity, regulations presently avail-
able. areas where they fail to achieve the desired objectives,
and Icophales, etc.

iv. Preparaticn of a Policy Document

Taking into account the results of these studies and the
alms and objectives of the coastal zone management program, a
policy statement with all necessary details may have to be draf-
ted. The draft policy statement may be widely circulated among
the related covemment and private agencies and also the genera!
public, especially the coastal population. Based cn the reports,
comments and criticisms from various sources, the draft may te
suitably amended and passed by the legislature.

For any such iranage-ent program, the interests of the cen-
tral covemment also have to be looked into. The additional

Table 1. Sixth S-year plan budget for Kerala s Coastal Zone

Purpose Amount

(in crores Rs)

Government of Kerala

Anti-sea erosion works 45. C

Karine fisheries and related progrannes 55.0

Ports and harbours 18.5

Tourism and others 20.0

Total 138.5

Government of India

Coastal canal systems 7.0

Cochin Port )

Mineral exploration and mlnlnq )

Coastal railway ) 100.0

Coastal highways )

Housing )

Agriculture and others )

Total 107.0

Grand Total 245.5

363

Table 2. Major agencies irtvolved in tne activities of Kerala's
Coastal Zone

No. Oebartrient/Agency User Develop- Stuciles Others

n^t

1. CJept of Revenue x x

2. Depart-ent of Fisnertes x x x

3. Deot of incustries x x

<• Dept of Mining s Geology x x

•S. Oept of Ports X

6. Dept of Harbour Engineering x x

7. oht of Public Morfcs XX X

8. Dept of Transport x

9. Dept of Agriculture x

10. Oept of Irrigation x

11. Dept of Local AAnlnlstratlcn x x

12. various Ingustries x

13. Local Boflles r x x

14. Greater Cochin. Trwanarun t

Calicut Oevelco- Aothcrlty x x

15. moian Navy x x x x

16. Kerala Fisheries Corporation x x

17. Kerala Flsher*an welfare Cerp x

18. Mater and Wastewater Aytbority r

19. K«-ala State Pollution Control eoaro x x

26. Ground Mate- Board x x

Zt. Ceitre for Earth Science Studies x

22. Centre for Onvelcpneni Studies x

23. Oeot of Ato-lc Enerpy (India) t

24. Cflc.*ilfl Port Trust r r x x

25. Central Marine Fisheries

Research institute x

25. Central irst. of Fisn. Tecnnoi, x

27. National Inst, cf Cceenegraphy x

28. Kerala arc Cochin Universities x x

29. National Highways x x

20. Railways x x

31. Various Service Societies * Clubs x x x

364

expenses for administration, investigation, specific developments
etc., may have ato be provided by the Cent-al Government. For
this, a spcial agency and funds may have to be created under
Department of Environment or/and Department of Ocean Development
of the Governmnent of India, with appropriate policies, suggest-
ing major guidelines to the states. Necessary recommendations may
have to be made to the Centre for the adoption of necessary
policies in this regard. The CZM policy passed by the State
legislature may have to be got approvd by the Governmnent of
India to become law.

IMPLEMENTATION OF A COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

To implement this policy, a suitable Coastal zone Manaoement
Authority (CZMA) with statutory powers may be established. The
major responsibility of CZMA will be to co-ordinate the user,
implementing and investtgtino agencies (Table 2 ) for the imple-
mentdtion of the policy The maior local implenentinc aoencies
would be the municipal corporations, municipalities, panchavats
and other local agencies These bodies issue the permits for
various uses and development programres in their respective areas
as It is done now. following the ouidelmes issued bv the CZM
authority Only issues and disputes, which cannot be manaced bv
these agencies will come to the CZMA. Also major or/end lono-tenn
uses issues and programmes will be referred to the CZMA who will
recommend suitable ouidelmes. based on detailed investioations
to the state or local agencies.

The CZM authority •$ authorised to receive/raise funds from
the Central/State Governments, local booie^ ana other aoencies.
It will sanction funds for administrative, development and other
purposes to the bodies and aoencies involved.

The authority may be under a Comlssioner and he may have
subordinate personnel to look after administration, planning, co-
ordination and investigation. !f necessary, it may establish
three regional offices to look after the matters of southern,
central and northern coasts of the State.

The success of a coastal aone management oroaramme depends
mainly on the Interest and cooperation of the coastal population.
Hence large scale efforts may have to be made, if necessary
through voluntary organizations working in the area and who have
sufficient interest in the programme, in particular, and in the
overall development of the state and the country.

CONCLUSIONS

The coastal zone of Kerala with its high population density,
at places even more than 2000 pe'-sons per sq.km and with its
limited resources, which are mainly non-renewable, faces severe
problems like coastal erosion, pollution, saltwater intrusion.

365

Mgh rate of wetland reclafration and others. The rapid industria-
Uzation of certain areas, wiscientlflc and hapharard develoiyren-
tal activities ty various aoencies. both govenwental and private
have led the coatal problems to a critical condition. Seme poten-
tial uses of this coastal zone, such as waterways, tourism,
energy sources, sand ard offshore mineral resources, etc., rerain
untapped. Pany of the coastal uses have overlapping jurisdiction
which Invite conflicts a-iong the users and managers. Lack of
coordination among these agencies and absence of a national/state
policy are found to be the major hurdle in the conservation and
development of the coastal zone of Kerala.

A Coastal Zone Management prograime. with clear objectives,
predrawn coastal boundaries and with the apriorities fixed has to
be iirplemerteC through as C2M Authority. Under this programne the
coordination of existing coastal user and regulatory agencies,
under a properly laid down coastal zone policy on the lines of
similar ones existing in various other coastal countries of the
world, Is envisaged. The nanagetrent plans for each location will
be drawn up by local authorities, which will be examined on the
basis ofthe policy and will be approved by CZH Authority for
liRplementation. With the cooperation of the coastal population
the suogested Coastal Zone Management Prograrre is expected to
take the coastal zone a long way in the optimal use of its
resources, balanced development of it and in the overall improve-
ment in the Quality of coastal life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Director and Head. Marine Sciences Division, are thanked
for their encouragement.

RfFFRPHCES

Baba, M. 1979a. Shore protective effectiveness of submerga break-
water, Proc. Panel discussion on Recent Advances in Earth
Sciences* I66-1S2. CESS, Tnvandnm.

Baba, H. i979b. Coastal erosion in Kerala - so^ problems and
solutions. Professional paper No.6. CESS. Trivandrum.

Baba, H. 198ta. Impact yf coastal end harbour structures on the
coastal environment of Kerala. Proc. Seminar on Status of
Environmental Studies in India. Trivandrum.

Baba. M. 1981b. Coastal engineering in USSR - a review. J. Insti-
tution of Engineers (India) 61: 198-211.

Baba, M. I985a. Coastal Zone of Kerala - need for management.
Tech. Report. CESS, Trivandrum (in press).

Baba. M.. T.S.S. Haneed. H.P, Kurian, K.V. Thomas, C.M. Hansh.
P.5. Joseph, H. Prasarnainnar and K.K. Va-mihese. i9B5b. Have
climatology for the southwest coast of India (in press).

366

Bratitz. J.F.P. (Ed.) 1972. Coastal Zone Kanagerenf multiple use
with conservation, John Miley and Sons, Inc., New Ifork. 352
pages.

Department of Environmental Protection (State of Connecticut,
USA). 1978. CAM report to the Legislature s interim study
comriittee on coastal management. Planning Report No. 27.

Kurup. P.G. 1974. Coastal Zone Hang«nent - problems and prospects
for Kerala. Seafood Export Journal 6 (12) 45-48.

Mont. N.S. 1972. Systematic study of coastal erosion and defence
works in the southwest coast of India. Proc. 13th interna-
tional Coastal Engineering Conference. Vancouver* 1427-1450.

Moni. N.S. 1981. Study of Coastal zone Management of Kerala -
some aspects. Paper presented in •feminar on Status of Envi-
ronmental Studies in India . Trivandrum.

State Coimittee on Science and Technology (Govt of Kerala). 1982.
A first report on the state of Environment in Kerala. 36 p.

Washom. E. 1974. The first year of Callformia -s Coastal Zone
Manoement Program, j. Marine Technol. Soc. 11-15.

Watts, 6.M. 1965. Field inspection of erosion problems of India.
US Anny Corps Of Engineers, Washington.

CASE SlUDY OF SAHDUR MIKUffi AREA

nnRODtxniD'^

Frtn tb? rotiesl beginning of 24 ninerals C\irirg the pre-
IruJepenisnci years, the IntJIan oining industry has citp a lorg
way ar>d pnxJuced 64 cinerals valued at Ps 26-83 billion, ^.-ong
these rlnerals, Iron ore estlrated at 13,5 billion tonnes, is the
seorw^ largest eineral resource. Ibe ann>jal prod'jctlon 1$ around
33 Pillion tonnes of which dcnestic consurotlon accounts for
about 16 ellllon tonnes and the rest Is exported.

Such a large'Scale nlnit^ operation in the country Is looted
only froa the viewpoint of revenue ai>d crplor>»rit arxJ Its bad
effects, not only to the lopogrophy of the area and huran health
but also to flora and fauna are neglected. Curing blasting, dril-
llr^. loading and unloading of the ore. fines ' and blue dust ’
are generated. Fines are usually not b*eri effectively utilised
due to lack of new technology and blue dust is not controlled due
to apathy of the private rine wwrs. This results In envlrerren-
tal pollution and health hazards.

It Is ‘^ported that for every tonne of ore, half of It will
be reduced to fines. Slroltaneously blue dust Is generated. It is
usually carried a«ay by the wlf>d and rain water, and results In
the problecs of air and water pollution. VSen air and water are
polluted they cause a nu-C>er of diseases and health hazards in
the area. Health hazards associated with large scale elning
operations are: darkness, cllrate, da-pness, cllratlc conditions,
radiation, presence of arsenic, gases, atrospherJe pressure,
traumatic accidents, noise, vibration, dust, radio Isot^s. and
biological risks.

However, in Iron and rar.»gBnese ore olnlng only few hazards
are noticed vir.. presence of dust, poisonous gases and other air
borne and water ^me Icpurltles end accidents. These not only
affect the health of wny people In the area but also spread
diseases. The diseases are called *sIow killers

The present study Is a nlld atlerpt to peep Into the field
of such slow killers In the Sandur area owing to large Scale
olnlng operations for the last 70 years. The specific objectives
were:

a. to investigate the nu-t«er of persons svfferlna frov water
borne and air borne diseases over a period of 5 years,

•WatJonal Sorfetu for t'rtav l>T»j9i>-»nf . iBangalor-}

368

b. to seek their trend In recent years, and

c. to suggest suitable control measures.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Secondary data collected from the records of the Government
General Hospital, Sandur» for the period from January 1978 to
December 1982 were analysed. The percentage change In water and
air borne diseases Is compared to other diseases In the area. The
chemical analysis of the water of Sandur area has been made by
Or. H.M. Jayaseela and others who concluded that water In Sandur
area Is not fit for drinking as It contains 2 to 3 1 Iron against
the one percent norm fixed by world Health Organisation.

The data have been collected only from one Hospital at Sandur
Town and exclused other hospitals of the nearby area. Further,
the data cover only the outdoor patients and excludes the indoor
patients. However, It does not restrict the scope of the study
because Indoor patients visit the hospital first as out-patients.

Study Area

Sandur Is a small town In Bellary District of Karnataka, and
has numerous hills and valleys of various dimensions. Sandur
schist belt. S3 km long and spread over an area of 600 so. km, is
a treasure house for two Important ferrous minerals. Iron and
manganese. Large scale mining Is carried out for the last several
years both by the public sector organisation (National Mineral
Oevelopment Corporation) and private sector oroanlsatlons apart
from several small and medium mine owners.

RESin.TS AND DISCUSSION

The number of diseases are categarlsed Into 46 by the Direc-
torate of Health and Family Planning, Bangalore and proforma is
made available to all the Government General hospitals. Out of
these 46 major diseases 20 diseases are noticed in the records of
the Sandur Government General hospital. However we have taken for
our study 19 major diseases excluding 'Injuries' as it is not a
disease in the strict sense of the term.

The major diseases from tdiich maximum number of people
suffered are mentioned In the Table 1. It reveals that maximum
people are suffering from water and air borne diseases.

It Is clear that the water and air In the Sandur area are
polluted due to large scale mining operations. Therefore the
mining operations in future has to be done with utmost care and
provide sufficient safety measures.

The data further show (Table 2) that air and water borne
diseases have affected more than 55X people. It is disheartening
to note that such large number of pMple suffering from these

369

Table 1. Yearnise total number of patients suffering from yarlous
diseases In the study area (1978-82)

S.N. Diseases

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

TOTAL

1. Tuberculosis

138

2. Asthama

12B

540

465

3. Allergy

102

107

Nil

147

4. URI

2053

1526

1064

2492

2422

9549

5. influenza

2531

1530

359

573

5024

6. Branchltls

2491

1164

1251

1383

1051

7340

7. Dysentary

831

1399

1364

1491

1330

6417

6. Helmenthitis

231

740

804

1106

934

3865

9. Diarrhoea

3842

1579

902

1207

763

8386

10. Digestive Disorder

1029

934

550

7B0

409

3702

11. Fever

3426

2725

2724

2338

1351

12566

12. Anaemias

689

540

397

624

693

2948

13. Conjunctivitis

S72

832

629

70S

761

3499

14. otitis

648

812

685

884

725

3750

15. Teeth and Gum

£84

283

343

619

572

2401

16. Scabies

908

1067

988

1311

1178

5402

17. Stomach-Ulcer

188

Nil

278

18. Spondylitis

1354

676

970

504

511

3575

19. Kyalgla

224

364

453

1087

SOURCE: Figures computed from the office records of
Government General Hospital. Sandur.

slow killers are provided with little care.

An interesting finding Is that while the air and water borne
diseases are declining slowly from 601 in 1979 to 501 in 1980 and
slightly Increased to 531 In 1982. other diseases sharply increa-
sed from 401 in 1978 to 501 In 1980 and then slightly decreased
to 471 In 1982.

Remedies Suggested

Mining and processing of mineral resources nay have a consi-
derable Impact cr the land, water, air and biological resources.
The Impact Is part of the price we pay for the benefit of mineral
consumption and it Is unrealistic to expect that exploitation of
natural resources can be accorpl Ished without affecting some
aspect of local envlmnment. What must be done is to develop
resources with the nlnlnun of adverse Impact. In the Sandur area
adverse effects mjv be mlnlnlsed If the following measures are
undertaken.

1. In cases of haul roads end stockpiles etc., dust can be con-

370

Table 2. Disease-wise distribution of patients in the study area
figures In perentheses refer to percentage.

Diseases

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

A. AIR BORNE

Tuberculosis

Asthatna

12a

540

Allergy

102

107

UR I

2053

1528

1064

2492

2422

Influenza

2531

1530

359

573

Bronchitis

2491

1164

1251

1383

1051

Total

7359

(32.7)

4894

(28.2)

2709

(21.7)

4557

(27.5)

3573

(26.B)

B. WATER BORNE

Dysentery

831

1399

1364

1491

1330

Helmenthitls

231

740

804

1106

934

Diarrhoea

3842

1579

902

1277

768

Oegestlve Disorder 1029

934

550

780

409

Total

5933

(27.3)

4652

(26.7)

3620

(28.3)

4654

(26.1)

3491

(26.2)

C. OTHERS

3426

2725

2724

2336

1351

Fever

689

540

397

624

698

Anaemias

572

832

629

705

761

Conjunctivitis

648

812

665

884

725

Otitis

584

283

3453

619

572

Teeth and Gum

908

1067

95B

1311

1178

Scabies

188

861

Stomach Ulcer

1354

676

470

504

511

Spondylitis

224

364

453

Myalgia

8424

7829

6430

7354

6253

Total

(40.0)

(45,0)

(50.0)

(44.4)

(47.0)

Grand Total

21716

17375

12759

16565

13317

SytlRCE: figures computed from the office records of Government
General Hospital, Sandur.

371

trolled by proper matntenarce and water spraying.

2. The residential buildings should be constructed to keep dust
pollution to the mlniironi.

3. At present sotne roads are at the heart of the town. The number
of lorries carrying ore to the Toranagallu Railway Station gene-
rate lot of dust resulting in air pollution. Hence separate roads
for ore transport should be constructed outisde the vicinity of
the town.

4. Plantation of trees may be taken up between the residential
areas and mining areas. A dense vegetation will act as a screen
to prevent dust.

5. Laws should be enacted to regulate dust and noise emissions In
the area,

6. In order to utilise the disposed fines, the pellatisation
plant should be installed. It is unfortunate that though such
plant was proposed some years back at Doninalal, NMDC Project
area, yet It has not come up.

Specific Measures

(1) Health hazards can be reduced by providing first-aid facili-
ties at the work spot and proper care by preplacement and perio-
dical checking.

(8) Freguent mire inspection should be undertaken to supervise
the safety measures.

(31 The workers education, which inclueds health education and
environmental monitoring should be olven top priority.

(4) water, particularly drinking water, in ihe Sandur Town should
be purified by the Municipal Authorities before supplying it
to the Dublle. At present water is pumped directly to the tanks
and supplied without purification.

The present study conflros our hypothesis that mining opera-
tions in the area have affected the health of the people, flora
and fauna and created the slltation problem In the Narihalla
Reservlor of the area leading to ecological imbalances.

RfFCRENCCS

Anonymous. 1S76. Indian Iron & Steel Statistical Bulletin, Vol.
II, ho. 3, August 1976.

Rajmohan, H.R. 1984. Occupational health hazards connected with
mining and mineral resources. Seminar Proceedings, Oepart-
c.1 VefLiWwgrf . Viittw. WAX^VAts trt ^ence, IftTmTore,
June 1964. 237-36.

Jayaseela. H.H., and others. 1984, Effects of Iron ore fines on
the fish - Rasbora-Daniconivs of Narihalla river. Sandur
Schist belt. Ibldr 212-14,

Sarveshwar, H. 1982. Hospet and Its environment. National Work-
shop, Vol. I, 1982.

373

Viter mialitv has also been aflversclv affected itu- to cons-
tant rclcas" of caseous ar»l particulate pollutants. The phvsico-
cli"Tical tiararr»*ters have be“r» itrasticallv ertianced iror® than the
T'^T stiiflards. 711“ av“raee hardness ratwes betw““n ^00 anrt fOO fi’t
CaCf^/litre. ‘'0, contort ranees b“ti<«*en ISO ani SOO ri«?/litre. pH
his he*>n altered to 8.0 to *1.0 level, total solids ranro frCm 650
to 60(X} Tc/litre ard calciim content is 150 to 700 me/Iitre.
Ti''«e fjcures explain theTOselv»-3 the effect of air pollution on

Tn another studs on the effects of lin»» works on hunan
h'.ilth 'athiir et al. (iqPjI observed tfiat )O-50< of the nornila-
tion arc’int the area suffers fro«* reaoiratorv disease. 1— from
tube*'c«ilosis . S-12*< skin diseases. 3-1^ from castro-intestiral

di “orders.

Enviromiental ^trateeiea for Lie** horks

In liclit of the studi«s in Haihar-Jtmkehi area, it has been
thouclit worthwhile to plan an eivirorrontallv ideal situation for
lir““ works. Tlie Mr Pollution Act althoueh restricts the present
tvre of manjfacturit'c process of li"<“ ««orks. vet trarv factors
liV" cost berwrit ratios, public interest ai»l labour avsilaliilitv
restrict th** industrialists to shift their lire kilns to remote
areas or to stop nroduef ton. Pased on above comirtaratinna,
followine stratones are suc<“sted for lire works

1. lire works 8ittiat“d on either side of bithwavs srrl rail-
«oi tracks ahould b“ lerediatelv shifted to remote places
to prevent furtner accidents.

2. Heidit of th“ kilns should be increased from 30 to ^0 ft.

1. Scnibhnrs should b“ use»l to trap easeous aril particulate

oollutarts. a prartic** which is not used so far.
fV*for“ tnvire por-mssinn to ar*. lire wprks. heaw planta-
tion proerarme should bo uirtcrtaken. which will be useful
in eh-ekinc pollution.

5. Th" plamors oust not allow am housins colonies in 3 to
5 km area arount tb“ lire kilna.

6. Lith* kilns shcrulil rot cluster in one area to avoid builO-
ine UP conccrtratioo of air uullutants.

7. Frvirorrental Tmiact Studies should be taken up itnredia-
t“lv.

3. Drirkine water hodi*** shraild he covered and Trust rot cove
in contact with air collutants.

d. H-*alth surv“v of labour erwared in the lime works arrl the
suTTourrlirc pcrulstion «'iould b«» made ©“riodieallv.

10. An environrertallv better d-sien should be d“Vised.

374

RFFFREMTFS

'tathur. K.C. et al. lOfij. Air Rsllutlon* A case stu^v of Maihar
I iax? VorVs, Rural Division of FnvlroTtnental Planninr otrl
Coordination Oreamaation (Oovt. of M.P.) and A.P.^. Umver-

Mathur K.C. aiil Maherrlra *ineh. Sonio gp ervi-

rorrnontal situation of -ihufcehi-Ki'i'ore area affected bv linie
kilns anri ccnwrrt factory pollutarta, M. Rail, thesis, A.P.S.
Cmvorsltv. Rewa.

CONSERVATION AND HANAGEKEMT OF HILD MAHHALS OF KERALA

H. felakrishnan*

ISTRODUCTION

Tfse for conservation Of India s natural habitats areJ
thereby protectina various plant and animal speelea had been
stressed recently by Cadgil (1979, 1982) Jinanthakrlshnan (1900),
Shanna (1931) Swaminathan (1901) and Khoshoo (1984) Tropical
forest ecasysteTs are Icftown for their rich flora and fauna At
present India has about 350 species of wild marmals in different
forest habitats It Is alanninq to note that Si of these are
threatened with extinction (Saharia 1982, Balakrjehnan and Alex-
ander 1984)

In addition to tne wild ramnals Indie has a priceless
legacy of other forms of wildlife such as birds, reptiles, amphi-
bians and a rutnbsr of species of insects which are yet to be
identified Fiirther. a number of other invertebrates and lower
groups of vertebrates also inhabit various forests of India.
However, atudles on these forms are neacre as eompsred to some of
the ether regions such as tast Africa. North Anerica, etc. India
IS slower in acquiring expertise and advanced training In forest
end wildlife management.

Kerala has about 9,000 sq. Ion of forests, consisting of west
coast tropical evergreen and semi -evergreen, southern secondary
moist mixed deciduous, southern montane wet teniperate, marshy
area ard grasslandB. Tnese are farther elasslfled into specific
cypee of forests based on the diversity of the composition of
species (Champion ani Seth 1968) Indiscriminate encroachment io
these habitats resulted in the depletion of forests in extant anl
quality At present, ^(erata has twelve wildlife sanctuaries and
two national parka comprising of about 2419 cq. km area (Table 1)
where th«' prestigious wild anioials have bc'^n protected.

Larger Mamnals of Kerala

About 40 species of large and s<edium sized maimnals are seen
in the forests of Kerala (Table 2) Only a few of them have a
viable breeding population. Others are either endangered or vul-
mrable. The lion tailed macaque. Macaea sllemw (Fig. 1) and the
Nilgiri tahr. Hemitragus hvlocrl as (rig. 2) are the moat endan-
gered mammals endemic to south India. Population of the tiger,

*0ept of Zoology. UniveraiCi/ of Kerala, TrivandruD, India

376

Table 1 wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks in Kerala

Name Area, sq km

1 Periyar Tiger Peserve 777

2 Myr»d Sanctuary 344

3 Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuarz 785

4 Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuarz 128

5 Peechi - vazhanl Wildlife Sanctuary 12S

6 Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary 70

7 Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary 53

8 ThetteVadu Bird Sanctuary 25

9 Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary 5 50

10 Chlwi'Ofiy wildlife Sanctuary 10 00

11 Chinmr wildlife Sanctuary 90 44

12. Shenduarney Wildlife Sanctuary 10 03

13 SllentValley hatloral Park 400.00

14 Eravlkulain National Park 97.00

Total area, aq Ion 2419 97

Panthers tieris and the Asiatic elephant, Eleohas mazimus have
also dwlnjled eonalderably during the recent past. In response to
the evolutionary proeese. certain species should becera extinct
and certain others should evolve with the passage of tine Fur«
ther. population of any species nay dwindle after attaining a
maximum growth due to diverse biological reasons Howeveri as
compared to the rapid rate of extemiretion of certain species of
animals to the natural extinction, the latter is very slow.
Those species decimated rapidly in the recent past happened tO be
costly in one way or the other by virtue of their edible flesh,
costly herns, besutiful fur or feather and so on (Balakrishnan
and Alexander 1964)

Conservation of Forests ani Wildlife

Conservation of wildlife can be e^ieved only by the protec-
tion and preservation of natural forests. Althoueit inrnediate
benefits could be achieved by adopting unscientific extraction of
forest produce and by various developcrental activities on short-
term basis, only scientifically oriented action progranres would
yield long-term benefits of forests at a constant rate. In addi-
tion to the salient role played by forests in the maintorance of
climate, soil moisture, control of soil erosion and floods,
forest and wildlife are beneficial to us by preserving the eeo-
systera, maintaining resistant gene pools, safeguarding environ-
mental qualities and by way of constant supply of forest produce.

377

•alls rubiqinona (Geoffrey)

Jur>gl<6

chAuB {Gulder«ta«bdt)
Smdll Inqjan civet,
VlverrlCT^ia irdlea (DesiMr

378

25. Emssth Irvjian Otter, Suldae CrsiBlaRdB, inarshy areas and

Lotra perapjcHiata (Geoffrsy) declducus rarest*

26. Nilglri rriorten or Trsgulidae Ever^een, semi-evergreen art

South Irriian Yellow-throated Marten, deciduous forest*

Hartes g>atVln*l Oforsfleld)

380

Ercroachment, forest plantations, hydroelectric projects, poach-
ing, fishing, collection of minor forest produce, forest fire,
cattle grating, tourism and pllgriaage are the majaor identified
throat to the forest habitat and wildlife in the west»*rn Ghats of
Kerala (Balaklrshnan and Ease 19B2). Further, unscientific plarn-
ning in the construction of roads, especially through the hlc^i
ranges also resulted in the deterioration of forest habitat in
Kerala. The recent landslides in wynad ghats revealed the saine.
Although scientifically oriented planning may be more expensive
initially, we have to adopt such methods in all our developnental
activities (Figs 3-5) which would be more beneficial and less
expensive on long-term basis.

Table 2 shows that various forest habitats in Kerala have
differentially been preferred by the diverse species of lar^ and
medium sized mammals. Hence each of these habitats must be prot-
ected to cone<>rve andmaintaln the animals depend on the forest
type concerned Gadgil (1962), Balakrlshnan (1984a) and Balakrl-
shnan and Easa (193S> have also stressed the rv>ed for protection
of all the habitats in any forest area as an integrated unit for
a better protection and conservation of species diversity.

Advanced Training in Forestry and wildlife

Although India has the third lar^st force of scientific ani
technical personnel in the world, we have only limited rumber of
them Crairmd in forestry and wildlife. Note of the Indian t/niver-
Bitiea has at present a separate department so as to facilitate
advatEBd teachino research and training in forestry an! wildlife.
Kenee considerable hardship has been caused to the forest ard
wildlife mansgers who are interested in higher studies. Even if
they get admission in 80 ir« of tlie foreign universities, they
seldom get opportunities for a study relevant to the needs of
Kerala or India in general. To overcome these difficulties, it ie
essential to create separate teaching ard res-arch departznentB
either in selected Universities or in Forest Research Institutes,
BO as to create an active group of researchers In this fast
developing field of biologicel sciences for a better conservation
of our priceless forests and prestigious wildlife.

Research rrogremmes

In India, research activities in the field of wildlife
biology and conservation of nature end wildlife are still >n
itsinfancy. Our research organisations such as the Dembay Natural
History Society and Zoological Survey pf India are mainly dealing
with population eeolooy of a number of species. This gives us
fundamental idea about the status of the species concerned by
which we group them as 'extinct* 'endangered* , *vulneerable’ and
■comnon’. Further a study on the population ecology also benefits

381

us t9 lirow about the population fluctuatieni growth rstsi etc. in
relation to habitat alteration tBalakriehnan ard Alexander 1984}.

Heeent advances in the field of ethology could reveal the
relevance of behavioural studies ir wildlife irariageneiit ani coi^
eervation (Ealakrishnan 1948b). Identified topics in ethology,
cepeeially the habitat preferenoee. feeding behaviour, social
behaviour, reproductive behaviour and eearajnieatlon signals of
various anltrals species play significant role for a better under-
staniing of the species concerned (Balakriehnan end Alexander
1984). Thus It would help us in wildlife conservation in gemral
and species preservation in particular. Hence, in addition to
the population studies, tehavieural biology of selected wildlife
species mad s to be irvestigated with a time bound progranpB.
Further deer fazrung can alao be initiated in selected forest
areas in Kerala which will help substantially to sveresme protein
difficiency of the human population of village in the hi^
ranges (Balakrishnan 1984b). Crop insurance progrenine would also
influence the public, who actually suffer from 'crop raiding' and
■cattle lifting', in diverting their creative activities towards
the protection of wildlife.

SOOIOW. ID CEMENT

1 am thankful to Prof. K.H. Alexander, Head, Department of
Zoology, University of Kerala for encoura^neot. Plnaneial assif-
tanse from the Oeparbrent of EnvarOfitent, Cevertreot of India, is
gratefully acknowledged.

REFEREKCES

Aunthakrishnan, T.N. 1980. The environnenta) crisis. Zoologleana
3' 5-10.

Balakrishnan, H. 1994a. The larger iramals and their endangered
habitats in the Silent Valley forests of South India. Biol.
Conserv. 29: 277-286.

Balakrishnan, H. 19Q4b. Prospects for deer faming m India. Kes.
Review 3. 57-6S.

Balakrishnan, H. 1984c. Deteriorating forest resources of Kerala-
stratecies of maintenance and iranac^nert. in* Matagement of
Natural and Built Envlronnent. <in press).

Balakrishr»n, n. and Alexander k.n. 1984. The endangered wildlife
of India and their conservation. Pull. Ehhol, Soc. India 3
(Suppl.J; 181-190.

Ealakrishrun, M. and Easa P.S. 1982. Strategies for nanagcAertt of
forests and wildlife in Kerala, p. 4S-55, In* Pece^ Trends
in Forest Hanagsr’ent. Kerala Forest Departoient, Trivandnn.

Balakrishnan, H. and Easa, P.S. 1985. Habitat preferentes of
laroe cra-Tnals in the Parecrbikulan Vildlife Saictuary, Kerala
(in press) ,

382

Chanpien, H.G. and Seth S.R. 1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest
Types of India. Hauger Publications/ Delhi.

Gadgil, H. 1919. Hillst dans and forests. Some field observations
from the v-estern Ghats. Proe. Indian Acad. Scl. C2‘ 291-303.

Gadgil, M. 1982. Conservation of India's living resources throu^
Biosphere Reserves. Current Sei. 51 547-550.

Khoshoo, T N. 1984. CcTvironmental Concerns and Strategies. Indian
Enviromental Society. Haw Delhi.

Saharia, V 6. 1962. Wildlife in India. Natra^ Publishers, Oehra

Dun.

sharma, a.k. 198i. iirpaet of the Developnentof science and Tech-
nology of Cnviromient. Presidential address, 69th session of
Indian Science Congress Association, Varerasl. 43 pages.

Swaminattian, M S. 1981. Environmental protection in India Prob-
lems and prospects. J. Bombay nat. Hist. soc. 78 429-435.

J .4 h'}} griW! Licv>-7^}}3^ dterjiu-ip ^.RholD i>/ X.

383

Fig 2 A close uo of lion Tailed Hacaoue s^ewirg facial features

3S4

Fig. 3. Tho Nllgtrl tahr. HcmUragus hylocrlus

A view of forest agrlculturol and grazing areas in a field In West
Germany. Forests and agricultural areas are separated from the grazing
fields by a simple and less expensive fencing using ordinary wooden
poles with exposed live wires of low voltage to keep the cattle away

CanSERVATION OF UNIH!EXFt.Onni PLANT RESOURCES

PromUa fepoor*

Curmw bioaworaphjcal hisCary and evolutAon bielotfieal
diversity of acpcips carse to bp concmtratPd in tropica, and ncvr
this hio-rpsrnrcp is in danqpr af «tatiction far a variety of
reaaana. Laelc of ernaervation in pinuning haa now led tn increaae
in vaated lands as living habiute are increaainiiiy eanipulated
for limted or short-tem p u rpcaes Habitats are even beint;
destroyed aa apace la <?iven over to either alternative uaes or is
ove'T^aplovted and polluted. This deniarde \irT 3 ent ecological aware-
ness in Che conservation of bio-rescurcea.

Of an escinated 10 nillion sceciea on earth only cne sixth
have been identified and anUentieated mainly in the past 200
years. Only 2£0,000 species of the total accet are plants. The
wild speoies are of considerable potential benefit to man in
medicine, atmeulture and industry, as a source of natural produet
for drugs, food, fuels, fibre, industrial base eorpounda and
additives. In ecTiculture, the predoctivity of mager crops cannot
be maintained let alone exoanded, without a constant infusion of
fresh generic vanabiJity. ^nJCt 1 of this genetic material ernes
from wild relatives of fiwdem ct«p plants.

rn addition, wild species offer eonsidersble potential for
entirely nev foods. Cf a global total of sere BO.OQO edible
plants, only about ISO species have ever been cultivated on 3
l.irtre scale, and 90\ of the world** food la produced from less
than 20 species. hatsy e'^arplea of cnderoTtploited plants exist,
with proven potential for future exploitation. In medicine lesser
Xnewn plants are used for the production of many drugs and phar-
maceuticals one in four products sold in medem phamaeiea
oncTinsre frera such underexploited vild plants resulting in a
glnbal cri me^gial vslne of nbent StO hiVliftn a year. In industry,
plants are used across a wide apeetrun.. Scientists, hawe onJ.'j
conducted a cursory s c reening of one in ten, and an intenoivp
screenina of cne in a hundred. Thus an analysis of 2SQ,QQ0 plant
species would reveal raary new siatenals of benefit to mankind.

The screening cf indigenous, underexploited feed plants to
supplement t-he much reeded mitritianal value and production of
principal cereals is gaining iirportance both in national and
intematmnal BOTicultural policies today. Cbviously, it is desi-
rable that such plants Irave high produetlan potential and mitri-
ti\e value and less dependence on the dwindling fossil ruels.
Frcm earlier exploratictn of soeti plants which are being used by

388

local pwpla for food in hilly areas in India, a list is now
available (Kapcor 1978, 1983). An exhaustive study on one of
these epeciea has shown that come of these plants are cultivated
as crop even today by many hill eoamunities.

eirphaslse intportance of oonservlmj underexploited plant
resources an exhaustive study of one such species has been under-
taken Thus, studies conducted on orain chenopods revealed varia-
bility in the biolOQical material to be sealed to ethnoecoloqical
characteristics of their environment of occurrence. Tour kinds of
(Train chenotods were diatiriquished based on colour of seeds. It
was observed that the cultivation of this crop is restricted to
elevation rancje of 1500-300thn. Low income of the family and alti-
tude of the locality where the families live are significantly
correlated with chenepod crop cultivation. These grains are con-
sumed by 30-50\ families in a village. Higher consumption la
noted in Winter season. Grain is also used for alcoholic fermen-
tation. The non-domesticated forms are also eaten. Chenopods
are predominantly grown in mixed cropping and companion cropolng.
Pure cropping is rare. Several other cropa grown in association
with chenopods are finger millet, rice, pulses, potato. There is
a close reference of chenopod cultivation, consumption patterns
etc. in local folk sorigs and folklore. The ethnebotanieal studies
showed that chenopcd grams are a vital food source of a large
proportion of the hill eossnunity of Himachal Praflesh. Thi* crop
needs maior improvements in seed guality, yield and cennercial
exploitation to revive its cultivation.

This pseodoceresl possesses high rotentis) for better yield
and nutritive value. The plants possess many attributes required
for an ideal crop. The food values of grams indicate higher
protein (15-18%), lioid (6-6%), carbohydrate (62-69%) content.
Calorie content is between 370-425 kcaJ per lOOg and Is the hieh-
est for earthem cultjvar, in ad(lition to the presence of all the
essential amino acids, the Jysine and leucine contents are much
hinher in chenopod grains than in many of our principal cereals
like wheat, maize, riqre, barley, finger millet and Italisn millet
in their content of protein, lioid and minerals. Of paramount
eignxficanee is the absence of saeonins (Partap end Kapoor,
1904).

Xveraae yield per chenopod plant in farmer’s field le bet-
ween )D-S0 o- Under these conditions, the grain production is 3.2
ouintals/hs and vanes with soil fertility from 4.3.31 q/ha.

The holistic report on ethnobotanical , socioeconomic, bota-
nicaf, aoronomicaf 8n(f physioloqicaf aspects of this pseudoeereal
reveals that this crop is important to the people of ixsrth Indian
hilly region. There is need to undertalce large scale germ plasm
collection of this slowly vanishing food plant species throughout
the Himalayan range for use in future breeding to improve the
quality and yield of this crop. Once this is achieved cultivation
and consumption be further encouraged among the poor rural hilly

389

people to suppleT>en* t^e^^ nutritionally deficient diet. Food
craft studies need to be rrade to popularise the eatables prepared
frOB the cram chenopods snitina “tt the food habits of urbanites
and generatina better econoauc returns to •‘he growers of this

Urgent studies of aboie kind should be undertaken to study
the bioloaical dixersi^y because of its pressing relevance to
Genetic resources for icankind Fecrettably, due to lack of ecolo-
gical planning the biolooical diienty is being reduced at an
alaming rate Xt least cne species is being lost each day, and
by year 2000, 10 rillien stay be lost Hany surviving species ray
well lose 90\ of their population without being threatened to
extinction but in this course, they nay well have lost half of
their source of genetic variability Kith the support of the
scientific CDirrrunity havinu sound ecological awareness and poli-
tical leaders, an expanded effort is recuired to safeguard those
plant resources vhich are lesser known neclec-ed or under-exploi-
ted and hnve great role in human welfare The conservation of
such plants needs urgent attention which have potential use but
are not yet given attention by agriculturiete or foresters yet
have production value of food, fibre, oil and pharmaeeutieale.
Various International erganiea'iens and institutions already
collect and use the genetic variability of the naicr food crops
of this planet. Several national institutes also collect and use
the genetic variability of rujor plantation crops. However, we
need now attention of simlar intensity f«r the ennaervation and
utilieatien nf underexpleited plant resources.

RETOt DICES

Kapoor, P. 1979. Ebfploration of plant resources of Hinaehal
Pradesh as food source, p. 153-1S3, In Resource beveleprent
and Envirom-nt in Himalayas. Dept, of Science l Technology,
New Delhi,

Kapoor, P., and T. Partap. 1979. New approach to conserve fossil
fuel by harnessing efficient energy rarturing plant systees
vinderexploited food plan-s Han and Environnent Systems. 9
305-309.

Partap, T., and P. Kapoor. 198a. Investigations on the food value
of Chenopods. Current Trends in Life Sciences XI 99-1C1.
Today and Tomorrow 'e Print. Publ., New belhi.

HATER POLLUTION IN SANOUR AREA. BELLARY (KARNATAKA)

H M. J&yasheela. V.K. Gourashettar, S. G.Tengxnlai
G SubbaRao*

TfrreooocTiON

The area under Im^stlcatlon la around Sandur and Hoapat
taluka and belonjrs to Sandur schist Balt. Th* schist belt Is
named after the town Sandur (72* l6* to 76* *i2' F Lonjr.. 5^'

to 15* 15* N l^t.). The occurre’tce of ferrous minerals In the
area has broucht Importance to tho mlnine Induatry- The explora-
tion and exploitation of these minerals i.e.. Iron and Manafansse
la Roinjr on for lost 70 year#. Tho extraction of manarals from
the area arounri Sandur and Hospet taluks has Jed to the defores-
tation of the schist belt and in turn it ha# caused ecolocleal
imbalance and pollution of nature. The ferrous minerals are
located In the ranitea like Oevadari hilla ICijmera«w*iri hills.
Kanmadheravu hills Kanavehalli hills. Ratrrirut hills ttoidmalai
hilla and TinnappanafRjdi hilla.

Ilia hills are canoe shaped and divided into northern anti
southern halves by west to ea#t flovina perennial river Narihalla
for which an earthen dam has been constmeted near Taraneitar. An
attempt has been made to detect water pollution in the reirion bv
collecting about ^ santiles throuthout the schist belt. The
occurrence of jrroundwater 1# ireilnly noticed In Epidiorritic for-
matiotB iron forraatlons and jtranitie formations.

HYDROCHEMISTRY

The area under investijration domlmntly consists of two
litholoirical units vi? Fpidiorities and Iron formations. The i
occurrence of groundwater in iron fomatlon 1» In the form of
natural sprints whereas in Epidlorites it Is in the form of open
wells. Water san^les were anlysed to determine the concentration
of cations and amons bv eirployiw COTA. It is observed that the
water samples from Pheemateerth and Ramjrhad are aelrile aai the
remai-nnt samples are alkaline In nature. Tho waters occurrin? in
iron formation are rich in Ca while those lb Epldiorites are
rich in Na and K content. The concentration of Mjr Is homofreneous
in both the formations and rich in HCO>> content. The concentra-
tion of Al+Fe throueiiout the Schist belt is hi(?h. Hl(tfier concen-
tration of Fe indicates that'wster Inthe schist belt is polluted.

*PepC of Ceologij, Karnataka PniversiCy. pbarwar. India

391

The pollutioa may be attributed to the llbcrntlon durlm ttdjri.ijt
operation of ore firEs which ere carried away by the rala water
aM later, they loin the mala stream by nales of the reerlon. In
the course of Its traRsportatloa acne of the naterial jcets diss-
olved on account of hlj* acidity nf the water that has caused the
river pollution and as well as ttie entire j^rounrtwater of the
reftlon. From the analysts It ia observed that the Fe content
varies from 0.80< to S.BOK. Tho penrdsslble limit for drlnklBjt
water standards accordlnft to MIO ( 1963 ) Todd (1969) varies
from 1< to O.I< respectively. In order to detect water pollution
la the area the application of Infrared absorption spectra,
perhaps for the first time has been successfully enployed. The
chemical coepositlon of 15 water eanples Is plven la Table 1.

KErmODS

Freoueneles at which a material absorbs Infrared energy
depend on the internal vibrations of the molecule and hence upon
its corrposltian. tofrared analysis involve the use of radiations
of such longer wavelength than that of the visible lldit. The
wavelength range of the spectrun classified as infrared is from
0.75 to 30 nderons- But. the Inportsat rerlons for studyltis
Riaarals aal crystals are tn the region of 2 to 25 tiderons. Tta a
nlneratoglst the isfrered spectroscope Is an effective tool for
the Identification of ednerals and noneral aggregates. Ifi a
irdDaral, the esleeules of different atcms are ground differently.
Hence, difforeat groups give different charaetarlatle abserptioB
baaris. For amanple. the hydroxyl group absorbs radlatioa of fre-
queaey at about 3500, 88 O and 730 per cm.

IVm source of Infrared radiation may be either a glcnfiag
fllameat or a hot silicon carbide rod both of which endt radia-
tions over a wide range of frequency. The infrared beam passea
through a collirator to the apeclmeo which should be In the form
of a thin film. The tra.'endtted rays then pass through a systeri
of ndrrora on a rock salt prism which can be rotated so as to
vary the frequency of radiation received on the detector. The
magBituda of the spectra over the wave length 1 # measure on a
thermopile or a bolwister, and Is re co rded continaoualy on poten-
tiometer.

The polluted water sanvles under investigation are studied
using a T^rkia Elmer model 599 I.H, Spectro F^otometer in trull
msdfa. ^e mfnfrai ia ffnely agated anef a srafl quantity of the
Bans la mixed with pire paraffin oil, thus fomdag a suspension
of ttdzuto crystallites ih a viscous medlrsn. The resultant paste
is then smeared over an alkali halide plate (of either NaCl or
KBr) a&i a second halide plate is kept on the first one atxl
squeered to got a thin film of tlie compound in the oil. This Is
kept in the spectroveter and tho radiation is passed. The resul-
tant absarptlon spectrun is nmasured end the minerals are Identl-

395

Developtnent Authority was set up In 1958 by the Goverment of
India under the Ministry of Rehabilitation. During the last two
and a half decades, due to reclamation of land, construction of
railway line and roads, execution of Irrigation projects and
developtnent of iron ore mines in theSalladlla there has been a
great reduction in vegetative cover in this basin.

Source Maps

The following naps were analysed and used In this study.

1. The International Vegetation Map - Godavari Plate, prepared by

the French Institute. Pondlchery and published by ICAR, 1963.

2. Forest Atlas of India, plates 28 and 33. KATW. 1975.

3. Agricultural Resource Atlas of India, plates 28 and 33,

NATMO. 1978.

4. Forest Haps of Orissa. Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. ISRO,

19B3.

5. Survey of India Topographic sheets 64 D and H, 65 A, B, E, 1,

J and H. All the atlas naps are on a scale of 1:1000 000 and
Survey of India topographic naps are on scales of 1:250 000,
1:253 440 and 1:50 000.

The earliest nap. the International Vegetation Hap. Godavari
Plate was conplled from topographic naps, literatures pertaining
to forest types and field work (French Institute 1963). Unfortu-
nately this map does not cover the entire basin. The partial
areal coverage and grouping a large area of forest under shifting
cultivation makes the map less useful In this present exercise.

The maps In the Forest Atlas of India and Agricultural
Resource Atlas of India are Identical in respect of forested area
and arable lands. The maps are compiled from topographic maps of
late sixties and field work. After careful ccmparison the maps in
the Agricultural Resource Atlas in view of their detailed classi-
fication of land use, were used In this exercie (Fig. 2).

The most recent maps on the forest cover of this basin has
oeen published by the National Remote Sensing Agency (N.R.S.A.
1983). The macs, on a scale of 1:1,000,000, were prepared through
visual interpretation of false colour composite dlspositives of
satellite imageries on 1: 1,000,000 for the periods 1972-75 and
1980-82. These maps show the following categories Of land use.

I. Forest Land : i) Closed forest, ii) Open and degraded
forest, ill) Mangrove forest.

II. Non forestland which includes agricultural land, grass
land, shrub land, non forest plantation and barren land.

111. Others which include areas un^er snow, fog, cloud,
shadows etc.

The forest nap of NRSA for the period 1980-82 was (Fig. 3)
superifrrposed on the landuse map of the Agricultural Resource
Atlas. The area, shewn as forest land, on boththe maps wereflrst

597

299

400

Oeinarcfited. Trie lends snovn as arable lend and barren land as
shotm on the Agricultural Resource Atlas, were later drawn. It
was then noticed that the renaming area Is shown dlf'erently on
these Baps: as non forest land on the ISRO forest f>ap and as
forest land on the Agricultural Resource Atlas. This area was
conpared with the latest topographic saps. Wherever cultivated
lands are deaarcated on the topographic naps, the area was accor-
dingly demarcated as expansion of arable land In the forested
areas. Except for a snail area In the eastern part of the basin,
all areas are under cultivation.

Interpretation

The resultant rap (fig. 4) shews significant expansion of
arable land into the forested areas on both sidesof the roads
radiating fron the town. Kondagoan In Madhya Pradesh. Areas around
Dharpur. Chitrakud. Patllguda. Grena and Paltapur have registered
expansion of arable areas. Least expansion of arable land has
taken place in the Gadchiroll district of Maharashtra.

The approxlMte dlstrlbutloln of land under three categories
is as follows Forest 4ei. Arable land 30t end Expansion of
arable land into forested area 2Zl, It eeans that there Is a
reduction of 301 in forest area within twp decades. This figure
is only tentative. Thorough checking of the rap Is needed for the
correct estiratlon of the area under forest. Nevertheless the
reduction is very significant.

Field work was conducted around Jnarkot, Nowrangpur, Mtpad,
end Kondgaon towns. It was noticed athat all nost all theopen
scrub land in level areas have been brwght under cultivation,
ftily on the low ridges separating the tributary valleys ere found
tne open scrub lend. The cultivated lands everywhere extend irpto
the bark of the river, Iftere the banks are steep, this practice
has led to the forratlons of deep gullies. There Is a need to
grow few lines of trees along such banks to stop farther accele-
rated gully erosion.

cofo-usichs

Recent developnent In the techniques of nap making, particu-
larly the use of satellite Imageries, make possible capping the
dyneaics of the envlroTncntal ©lenents. The satellite Imageries
help In conltorlng the changes and Identifying the areas needing
imedtate conservation measures. Of course, caution Is needed in
drawing conclusions fron satellite Imageries. The accuracy of
interpretation of the imageries, to a great extent depends on the
personal and specialized knowledge of the Interpreter of the
area. In its absence grave alstakes cay occur. So there Is a need
to gather ground truth through field survey and from other secon-
dary scxjrces of informatioos, such as topographic caps, serial

401

photographs and literatures. Exchange of experience between the
interpreters and users of the satellite Imageries will go In a
long way In developing more accurate softwares for Interpreta-
tion, Accurate Interpretation and periodical rnonlterlng may bring
Into limelight, at an early stage Itself, the corseguences of a
bad land use and the needed corrrectlve measures. This is a new
possibility. Can this possibility be used toeducate and motivate
people totalce up timely action for the preservation of envlror-
ment’ Time only car tell.

ACKMOWUDCEMEMTS

The authors thank the Director-General arxi the Chief Engi-
neers of the National Water Development Agencies, a Government of
India Society, under the Ministry of Irrigation for providing the
financial support for this study. Thanks are also due tothe
Director, Application Centre. NfiSA. Hyderabad for providing the
Forest Maps to Dr Gautan for useful suggestions.

REFERENCES

French Institute, Pondichery. 1963. International Vegetation Hap
• Godavari Plate. ICAR, New Delhi.

National Atlas and Thematic Happing Organisation. 1975. Forest
Atlas of India, Plates 8 and 11.

1978. Agricultural AtUs of India. Plates 28 and 33.
Ratldnans^te Sensing Agency. 1983. Mapping of Forest Cover In
India from Satellite imagery. 1980-82. Sirwary Reports, Maha-
rashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

Subrananlan, V.K. 1969. Dandakaranya - A Changing landscape.
Indian Geographical Journal XllY: 54.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POLLUTION

J.E. CBvid and Qinstina Sathyendra*

HISTORICAL STUDY

Envlronirental Awareness has to precede any attempt at Envi-
ronmental Education We will therefore try to trace the history
of both briefly.

Man evolved In a hostile environment over a million years
aoo but manaoed to survive and develop due to his physiological
resistance adaptability and Inteliioence. The experience of
victory over an inhospitable world cave Mm a thirst for domina-
tion at the expense of fellow creatures and nature {Tendron
1982) His success t$ reflected In the evolution of the pre-
historic civilizations like the Mayan. Babylonian, Egyptian.
Indus Valley Harappan and Kesopotamlan civilizations. The dec-
line of these civilizations was closely associated with Ill-
judged exploitation of natural resources. Three stages of civili-
zation can be noted domination by forests, overcoming forests,
dominating forests and leading to Its own destruction. The action
of man is so closely Interwoven with that of other environmental
factors that between wrecking of the physical environment and
the deterioration of the social and cultural setting It is
impossible to say which is the cause and which the effect (Stock-
holm 1972 BachVheti 1981. oohfi 1983). Except as Indicated above,
primitive man existed In hannony with nature and the balance
between man and nature deteriorated very gradually till about the
last two hundred years when the deterioration started accelera-
tino exponentially. Such balance was maintained through totems
and taboos religious beliefs and social customs, bom out of
thousands of years of experience and geared to the rhythms of
nature phases of the moon, changes of season, flowering and
fruiting of plants, and movements and reproduction of animals,
etc (Dasmann 1976). In India, the Isho-Upanlshad has the follow-
ing profound statement “This universe is the creation of the
Supreme Power meant for the benefit of all His creations. Indivi-

dual species must therefore learn to enjoy its benefit by form-
ing a part of the system tn close relation with other species.
Let not any one species encroach upon the others rights (Pal
1981)

With the advent of science and technology, and introduction
of formal education, such traditional knowledge of environment
and ecology began to be eroded, as the younger generations were

•Data Centre for Natural Resources. Wortd WiitfJi/e FVnd-India,
1$ Spancar Road, Bangalora 550005 . India

403

no longer willing to receive Infoimatlon by word of mouth from
their elders (which was the way in which traditional knowledge
was preserved in a comrunlty). Disposal of sewage and sullage
secns to have received early consideration as evidenced by the
British Urban Sanitary Act 1388 which prohibited the throwing of
any refuse like dung, filth, garbage, etc., into ditches and
rivers or other waters . and places within, about, or near any
cities, borouahs or towns, and other British Acts of the 1500s
{Nair 1954). Rexcavations at Lothal (Gujarat. India) Indicate
that Haraopan Civilization probably frowned upom similar duirplng
which mignl block the elaborate drlnaqe system, and that the
citizens cooperated. However, the effects of industrial effluents
and large scale deforestation appear to have been lanored, proba-
bly as a necessary evil of development, or rot noticed as the
serious environmental and ecological effects took a long time to
aopear.

The attacks on, and systematic destruction of. the environ-
ment roused the anxiety of open-ninded and lucid thinkers. The
naturalist and writer Alexander von Humboldt was probably one of
the first to raise the alarm and ttemano prctectlpn for naturi
sites. Other writers like Chateaupri and and Barbey d Auarevilly.
and economists like Kalthus. began to realise the dangers threa-
tenlno the future of the human race. In 1853. the Forest of
Fontainebleau was declared as a reserve In France, and In 1872,
Yellowstone ^ation8I Park was created in the United States.

But Conferences on the protection of birds held In Paris in
18S5, 1902 and 1954 concerned therrselves only with birds, and the
Conference for the Protection of African Fauna and Florain London
in 1933 only with African animals, and CiO not show r«ch concerri
about their habitat. Nothing is reretrbered now of the internatio-
nal conference on nature orotecilon in Berne in 1913. or the
congresses In Paris in 1925 and 1931. It was only Mn 1947. after
Vforid War II that representatives of 24 rations andmany private
societies met at Brannen (Switzerland) tc propose the creation of
an International Union for Nature Protection, which cane Into
belno In 1948 under the patronage of UNESCO, and is now the
International Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resou-
rces (Tentircn 1982).

On December 12, 1969. theCwwcil of Europe Cormlttee of
Minsters. wLlh the tQaQerai.lnn of the. PvluunejiJAT^ ittfanfiks .
recoiiTended setting up a counlttee of experts for “oreservlng the
Landscape, promoting the establishment of new nature reserves and
national parks, and working for the conservation of nature and
natural resources and the protection of flora and fauna" (Tendron
1932). The Council of Europe has ever since been doing slcnlfi-
cant work for the conservation of nature and natural resources.

In India. Town Nuisance Acts existed in the provinces of
British India in 1889. and Acts to protect River and Canal waters
and sone other similar Acts about the same tim* or litle earlier.

404

Smoke Nuisances Acts came in 1905, and Aoriculturl Pests end
Otseses Acts in 1919 while The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba)
Act was in existence in 1853 itself (Kantha 1974). The Code of
Civil Procedure 1908 provides for a declaration or injunction
against public not till the 19S0s that the need for protecting
the environment appears to have received serious worldwide atten-
tion. In Britain, the first Clean Air Act, consequent to the
death of 4000 persons tn 1952 due to 2 continuous days of smoke
became law In 1956 this and subsequent Acts had significant
effect In reducing air pollution {Ashby 1971). ^

The Club of Rome whose views were published in Its Limits
to Growth {1972). said that development of the sort manifested
In the developed societies, and the accompanying life style, were
not sustainable In the long run. The Founex Report (1971) made a
distinction bewtween the envlronmertal problems faped by the
developed countries (industrial pollution, depletion of scarce
resources) and those faced by the poor countries (clean water,
food, housing, sanitation, employment, etc.). Poverty was seen as
a form of pollution. The definition of environment was extended
to Include the socio-economic setting in which man lives and
works In addition to its physical aspects (Dasgupta 1978). It was
In this settinq that the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment was called at Stockholm in June 1972, which drew
global attention to the fact that Industrial growth producing
materloal wealth and power also produced widespread destruction
of earth s natural resources and new risks to human health and
wellbeing (Strong 1983). The subsequent workshop on Environmental
Education (EE) at Belgrade in 1975. and the fnter-govemmental
conference on EE at Tbilisi. USSR, also put forward specific
recoimendations for eenductlno EE proarartre ranging from elemen-
tary to post-graduate staoe of education m fomal as well as
nonformal sectors (Anon. 1984). The Stockholm conference resulted
in the formation of the United Natiuons Environment Progranre. In
1975, UNESCO with the cooperation of UNEP launched the Interna-
tional Environmental Education Procranrre (lEEP). This has now
completed Its first three phases of promoting end stimulating
environmental education emono UNESCO meirber states; helping the
states in their efforts to incorporate Envlronrental Education
into formal educational levels, and non-forral education for the
public In general, in a way which favours the preservation and
improvement of environment orlortty for training of personnel,
innovation in educational n^thods and teaching material, and the
education of younq people and adults In rural areas, and program-
's for put out by the mass media. It is now in its fourth phase
covering the biennliwt 1984-85 vrfien. in addition to other key
activities of the earlier phases, priority is being given to the
establishment of a Department of Environmental Education in Uni-
versities. technical and vocational training, and out-of-school
education (Connect. VIII 2 lll-a. V:4: CII:4).

405

Events like the rjss death of fish !n lakes and streams of
&<eden and hoivjy since the 1950s due to acid rain (Cubberly
1933), the death of <3 people bet»feen 1953 and 1556 and perranent
da-aoe to the nervous systea of 70 others at Hlrasaia (Japan) due
to rethyl rercury poisoning through CMWirptlon of contaiinted
fish (Kendall 1554). etc. drew global attention to the need for
control of Industrial pollirtlon. Such controls vere generally
resisted by Industry, as they Invariably Increased the cost of
production, and thereby decreased their profit- Vhen controls
were Iccosed. they were generally for imedlate local benefit,
and terel tended to either postpone tr« effect of pollution, or
transfer It to sore other place. The adoption of tall s-eke.
stacks to prevent the local effects of gaseous emissions In
Gemany and other European countries resulted In the transport of
these emissions by the prevailing winds to the Scandinavian
countries, causing the rass deaths of fish noted above. Other
Instances are the sea dcolng of chenical and nuclear vsstes,
and even land fills used for dirping urban garbage, drinaoe of
urban sewage Into rivers or lekes. etc. Industrialists bent on
profit at any cost even erport their polluting rsnufacturjng
processes to less developed countries where controls on emissions
re less Strict. Pollutant residues get concentrated progressively
along the food chain, and finally reach ran froQuently at dange-
rous levels. In leortca, OOT at a higher level than have

been tolerated In fomila rtik was discovered In hu'an njik
(Kendall 1954).

A nurber of Intemattwial conventions end egrecrents have
been signed with a view to protect the enlroment end wild life
which are exposed to violation by tore than one country. Sore of
the ieportant ones are listed belCM:

• Convention oof Wetlands of tnemstlonal Iroortance

especially as Waterfowl l^bitats (Parser) , 1971

- Convention for the Protecton of the World Cultural

and Natural Heritage. t972.

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna end Flora (Washington), 1973

- Convention on the Conservation cl vigrtory Species of

Wild Anlnals (Bonn). 1979

- Wildlife convention (Berne). 1975

- Birds Directive (Brussels) 1591

- W tcnfemice on law o1 the Sea, 1. 11. 11).

When the westem countries realised that there had to be a
llelt to the exploitation of natural resources, they not' only
Introduced sene e-ount of control In their own countries, they
also tried to Introduce such controls in their colonies or deve-
loping countries where they had Influence. Such efforts were
Initially resented by the developim countries as Intended to

<06

prevsnt ttwa frcn deycloplng, as seen frcn the African cbiecticn
cf the Stockhholm Conference 1972 (Ksthias 19S4). Frtre f’lnister
Indira Gandhi also raised a cuallfied objection there in the
follovlng words: 'We do not want to pot the clock back or resicn
ourselves to a slrpllsttc natural state. Ve want rew directions
in wider use of knowledge and tools with which science h>s ecuin-
ped us. And this cannot be one upsurge but a ccniin«:us search
Into the cause and effect and an unendino effort to catch tecrro-
logy with higher levels of thinking Modem ran rust re-
establish an unbroken link In the develcplrg countries, howt-ver.
was gradually eercore. Vhen the hicenan Delecatc to the lUCh
Technical talks In Zaire in 1976 raised similar cbjccticrs. Paul
Leyhausen (1976) said "It is often aroued that specially the peer
countries could not afford to leave wi Idemess alcne. Infact
even less than the so called rich countries, can they afford to
destroy it. Per can the world at laroe. the hiran ccrrunitv.
afford to let thea do it. Vilderr^ss areas are the eccncrically
soundest investment any cctrrunity can cake". Indira Gandhi
herself said later (198!) that no country can afford the lore
term cost of ignoring the envirerrent or ecolocy. This sentiment
has been repeated by Rajiv Gandhi, present Prire Minister cf
India, in ms speech to the nation on 5 January i?e5 when he said
that pollution of the Ganga would be controlled a-d wastelands
replanted to produce fuelwcod and fodder. Most Cevelooino coun-
tries are new aware that envircnrental protection is a prerecui-
slte for sustained de^elccrent (Hetzel 1552). There can be no
develcpnent on a sustainable basis if the envirerrent is not
protected for the use of the oecole (Bliss-Geest 1992).

PRESEKT SlTUiTiOS

Legislation

Vhat has this awareness of the need for protectino the
enviromeni done in Indla'» Ve have already seen so-e of the
early legislation that existed. in 1577-76. the azrd A.-end^nt
to the Ccrstltuticn of India was passed w^ich introduced the
following articles in Part IV. Directive Principles of State
Policy

Protection and imnwe^nt cf envircnrent and safecuarding
of forests and wild life The State shall endeareur to protect
and irprove the envircnncnt and to safecuard the forests and
wildlife of the country

Tx(Ti4wt?rfLc!\ te ^^e Outy oT every citizen
of India to protect and irprove the natural envirerrent ihcludino
forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have cO"passion for
living creatures.

407

The foncw\riq Acts have provision for Mfecuardiro envi-
rcrn'ent

The factories Act 1548

The Atonic Erercy Act. 1S52

The Insecticices Act, l®68

The Vilclife (Pratectien) Act, 1972

The Water (Prevention ar<J Control of Pollution) Act. 1974
The Territorial Waters, Ccrtirental Shelf Esclusive Eccro-
mic Zone and other Kartire Zones Act 1976 aive the
Union Goverrnent "exclusive lurisdiction to cnotect the
f^arire Envircnnent end to prevent end control rarire
col lution"

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1®81
various Police Acts (nrescnte limits to noise levels).

Case Stuaies

The effects of pollution on the eovirornent are diverse arc
widcscrcad. The focal therve of the 6Pth Session of the Indian
Science Congress Association at Varanasi in i<^Pi was "iffcact of
the Oevelconent of Science end Tecnnolocv on the Envircnnent"
Prof. A.<. Shanra, in his cresideotial add’^ss touched on the
different )iinds of natural and synthetic collutants chencal and
radiation colluticn, and marire freshwater air and noise oollu*
tton, and the orcblems they create ranqinq fron effects on
vegetation to cancer in hutnars and cenetic and nutacenlc effects.
The focal thene of tne 73ra session to he ’viid in January 1966 is
"Envircmental hunage'ent". fron wnicn t’v ircortarce attached to
Enwircrnent can he seen.

Let us see song ease studies of oclluticn in India. Indian
Aluminium Corpany (IA^JALCQ*’ in Belcatw constructed an effluent
tank next to the factory instead of i.S km away. In U years, the
tunes of the tank breached 3 Utres. rendenno neighbounno fields
wastelands by bumirc the tcosoil with effluents of pH 10.5
1000 acres of paddy and sugarcane fields were affected in 1979
Effluents poured into an irrigation reservoir, then jn to Krishna
River, killing Fish. They conta-mated wells suMlyino drinking
wter, compensation of Ks 13.26 lakhs was scucht. tut the conoany
offered only Rs. 1.06 lakhs, which was refused ty the villagers.
Another tank was constructed by IVOALCO, which can contaminate
the irrigation reservoir through seeuace only, even without brea-
ching. The effluents cause air pollution also, leading to lung
diseases (Sharm.i 1A£0).

The iLan Agrochemicals factory In Goa is located on a
plateau which was under a reserve forest, reportedly hartcunng
much wildlife including ticers. Today this plateau stands barren
even though the factory is confined to only a small part of this
area. Obviously a nuch larger tract than necessary was defores-
ted in the process of esUblishnent of the factors, and the

408

exposed Uterltic rock is now incapable of supporting any plant
growth (Gadgll and Malhotra 1980). In 1977. they were forced by
court Injunction to suspend operations till arrangeinents to stop
pollution of the off-shore sea area were satisfactorily completed
(Mathias 1984). Due to adminstrtive and technical legal problems,
the case dragged on for years, during which period they continued
to discharge polluting effluents (Singh 1984).

Rise In the level of subsoil water In some parts of Andhra
Pradesh due to large dams has resulted, through a series of
interactions between soil, trace metals and plants, in skeletal
fluorosis of local Inhabitants, causing knock-knees and serious
emotional disturbances and social stress (Agarwal et al. 1982).
The same disease has been observed In Karnataka also, caused by
change In njcro-ecology of the area (Handlgodu, Shlmoga Dt.)
probably due to pesticides ( Chengapoa 1063).

The industrial towns of Agra. Mathura, Kanpur. Lucknow end
Allahabad are situated along the banks of major rivers of the
Indo-6angetlc Plains, where Industrialisation and urbanisation
had been very rapid In the last two decades. The natural slope
of the Ganga, Oamuna and Gomtl ofthe Ganga system have been
mainly used for flushing out the domestic and industrial efflu-
ents. as no other geomorphlc alternative for flushing them out
was available. Congestion, garbage pollution, traffic strangula-
tion, noise and inadequate housing, build up the problems. There
is a relationship between the Increasing level of air. water, and
noise pollution, and the rapid rate of industrialisation (Nagar
et al. 1981 )

The recent tragedy at the Union Carbide pesticide plant at
Bhopal (India) is still fresh in our minds and does not need
repetition but a couple of points can perhaps be emphasized.

a) According to a Reuter news report (The Hindu, 8 Dec.
1984) from Danbury (Connecticut, USA), a computerised early warn-
ing system which had been installed at a sister plant of the
company In VJest Virginia, had not been installed In 8hopa]. This
system could have detected the pressure buildup which led to the
leak of poisonous gas.

b) It IS reported that Union Carbide turned to Bhopal for
establishment of this factory after efforts to establish it In
Canada had teen turned down as it involved lethal gases, and that
Its factory In West Virginia had been called the smokiest factory
In the world (Singh 1985), also that the company stonewalled
efforts to put in controls in several of their plants and refused
to attend government conferences discussing how to Clean the
atmosphere (Sharma igSSU

Chemicals and pesticides which have been banned as dangerous
In developed countries, continue to be manufetured in developing
countries (Vasu 1964). According to one estimate, as many as two
million people are affected by pesticide poisoning throughout the
world, of which 40.000 die: 30.000 of these deaths (7SX) are In

409

Ihi. dovtloolno counirios (Dcvasia and Baiakruhnsn igpfl)

There is no lltnJt to tht ftun'ber of instdnces whicn can be
ouoltd tiul what is the re-ndy’

RetrcdJal ('casurts

Both the Water Act 1974 arc! lt» Air Act 19B1 nrovltlp for
centra) and State Roaros for Prtvpntion and Contro) pt Uatir/Ajr
Pollution with lirriitfl ee^bershin fro*” ar'ono rn ■'uhMc Thi
functions of the Central Board arc wore of aevicpry cp ordina
tlno and assistance otvlno nature The state Beards in addi
tion to these arc to take adecuatc steps to control ooliution
by fixino standards for industrial discharocs and alvlno consent
subject to conditions for discharces Anybody ylolattncj the
standards or conditions can be prosecuted but no action can be

taken unless conviction Is obtained in a court of law The
Boards arc rerely rrosecotinn agencies and not enforcing aoen
cics Further the rcffbcrshlo of tn< Boards is heavily wejohted
with Qovernnent officials and representativs of oevcrnmonl con>Da
hies and the oovernrert Is also empowered to olve directions to
the Board This restricts effective participation of the public
rerbers (ChendraseVharan inp4) Freoueitly it IS not POSStbU
to obtain a conviction as it is difficult to establish a link
between cause and effect of pollution and in any case the
PiraUles are not sufflfUmiY deterrent

An Lrvlronrrrtal irpacl stan-nni is necssary before a rajor
Projici Is sanctioned and recently eovernrent announced thp
eitcntlon of this rc<iutre»nni to wdiir' scale industries also
IThe hlrau 3 Dec 1954) However the procedure adopted in
India suffers fron several defects Me“hers of the public art

the victlflS of pollution but the sche*^ does not envlsatje public
oartlcipatfcn Unlike thr British law which requires pubMctlon
Of the application for consent there is no Such requlrerent
under Indian Law Tht procedure in the United States under the
National Envlron-rcnlal Policy Act 1969 {known as itPA) and rules
and orders under It reoilre a public hcarinq (dratiailcally illus
trated In Arthur Halley s popular novel "Overload" althouoh with
a cynical bent) before a decision Is rade and this has been
followed by several other countries but not In India The Sttc
Boards in India do not have to consult the ouhlic before prcscrl
blng conditions for effluents or declarlno control pones under
t.h« VMtT afffjsl Mt AttS lVtrt‘\aVTVSb’\arv thfe hrtsTlean

reihod should be adopted and public pariiclpailon increased

The costs of environ-ncntal daraoe fall on people different
from those who benefit fron* the developirent Oil SPtUs indus-
trial catastrophes and floods are enanoles various other hun-an
activities also affect renewable resources in all these cases
the costing of dawaoes Is Incorplete as the full extent of
dSTages is not known Pollution danaqe as assessed from available

410

data in developed countries is 3.£t of GNP, whereas expenditure
on pollution control will not exceed U to 21 of 6NP. The cost o'
pollution control is more than corpensated by the t>enefits. end
also encouraoes research into alternative tecb'-oloaies which
cause less pollution (Kshirsaoar icg3). The principle ’’rclluf-r
Pays" should be irplemented. but freouentlv the industies which
cause pollution are so econorically and politically powerful
that they are able to thwa*'*' efforts to control thetr. t0-40t of
advertising revenues for US iracazines cones frw tobacco adverti-
sei>ents and therefore freelance nedical writers keep off the
subject of environnenlal and health effects of tctscco STcklnc.
wren a rajor Anerican ccnpany supolymo processino naterial to
tobacco corrpanies released a booklet on envirpn-ental causes of
cancer drawing attention on cigarettes as the ca-se c' n-any
different nalignancies. a cioarette coTpsny th*-eatenea to look
elesewhere for its supplies since 1®64. there has been no iraicr
story on health effects of cioarettes in most US ocnular publica*
tions in Sept. 1576. British viewers saw a powerful anti-
smoking film "Death in the West", featuring anono other thinos
interviews with 6 real cowboys who have lung cancer and enphyseira
caused by snoking according to their physicians. The producer
was sued in British courts, and a coon order obtained preventing
the film fron being shown or even discussed by film makers, and
requiring that all copies of the film be destroyed or confisca-
ted. When the Journal of the American Medical Atsociatlon wanted
to write a story in 1932 on this filn, and the tobacco companies
efforts to suppress it. it was advised to drop it as it miaht
render the American Medical Association vulnerable to leoal ac-
tion (Anon. 19S4). Obviously, stricter legislation and enforce-
ment are necessary.

Our environmental laws, which operate on a deterrent theory
of criminal justice, are Ineffective as the economic benefits
of non-compliance are tijch more than the penalties. To ensure
eguity among the people sharing the environment, the offences
coming under environmental laws should be redefined as liabili-
ties in tort instead of criminal liability. This will enable the
penalty to be directly linked to the harm done. To make the
compensation equitable, the degree gf harm done could be equated
to the exact monetary gain made by the oefaulting party onaccount
of the absence cf the machinery reguired for preventing pgllution
in the environment. Whei^ necessry, these compensations could be
paid to the tribal, rural, or urban people wno are the actual
losers. The Sords and the Dept, of Environment should be given
the leoal right to make the assessment and levy it as a tax
insted of having to prosecute uSlnoh 19S4).

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Both the adoption of legislation to prevent pollution, and

nore so their enforce’ient. reauire public Involvenert coope-
ration. This presupposes an enlichtened public, aware of the
conseQuences of poll"tion, and willina to rrake its vi^-ws known.
It also requires enlightened politicians and ad-iiristrtors will-
ing to pass the necessary laws and enforce then. For all this it
IS essential that envirca-ental eflucatien should be irparteO at
various stages tror childhood onwards, to ensure that planners,
adrinistrators. engineers etc., take sufficient precautions to
forestall pollution before taking decisions for industrialisation
and develOD-ent. such eduction has to be interdisciplmry in
approach erfl irparted to all. irrespective of the diciplme of
their own speciality. In this context, the work under the lEEP is
very sicnificant In India, the National Ccmittep on Fnvinirnen
tal Planniro and Coordination (now National Connittee on Environ-
rental Planning) and the Departnents of Environ’ient , ano of
Science S Technology have laid such e^hasis on inter-discioli
nary research education end training in the area of cnvu'on’en-
tal rarece“ent. The University Grants (^"nissier is also advoca
ting interdisciplinary epproach by different universities The
Planning Ccmission nas also incorporated environ-iental i'“D8Cts
and ecological nanage"ent in the case of all kinds of field based
develoD~ent oroiects in its VI Plan docirents end has uro^d all
Slate GoveTT"ents and the Central fiovennent Kinstries to adopt
ecciooically viable ceveicpveni projects in Different fieins. The
Bangalore university is gradually introoucmg subjects relating
to environ-ent. pollution, and conservation in the syllabus for
decree colleges fren the first year onwards in chenjstry, zoology
and botany it is presumed other universities arc doing the sairo.
Fron 1083 the University of Calcutta has introduced an i* Phil,
course in Environmental Science there is also a Ph D. Peoree

In pri-ary schools. EE cerprises local studies of plants,
aniffals and their habitats, with the am of stirulatinq the
child 5 inerest in living orgnisns end in earth, air and water.
Progressive teachers feel th«t if iitgjnatively tauohl. children s
interest can embrace strple biolooy ano earth sciences also arong
ether subjects. However there are serious proble-is in sustaining
this interest at secondary school level. Fnvironnentally based
studies of pnrary school are rather abruptly replaced by circin-
scribed scientific disciplines, scne of which are arbitrarily
chosen and of narrow and special kind. The options earning fron
eojcation deelco*ien£ work such as the US Biological Sciences
Curriculum, study in Sweden and elsewhere, hve provided opportu-
nities for refcm leading to nore effective secondry schant
education on environmental subjects.

On account of sionificant developrent in Europe, the United
States and the Soviet Union, the recognition that the ranaoenent
of natural resources is an applied science in its own right has
resulted in reassess-ent of the content of courses in biolcray and
earth sciences* ecology and related subjects have been drawn into

112

a detntt. a^^vJ’ l vahi<. of broader bas« d Muli s at undtrarduate
levt-ls 5 oricstc in^tdrlv sucialisaticn. Efforts are beinq
made in livia olso to chance the syllabus -nradually at urderqadu-
ate level to include subnets having more emphasis on environmcn
tal resources ind conservation (Pritchard 1968).

In India the National Coimittee on Envlronirental Planning
and Coordination (NCCPC) constituted in 1972 had as its major
obieclivi 'nrcTOtino research in environniental problems and esta-
blishing fa.ilities tor such research whereever necessary".
Funds were allocalid in the Fifth and Sixth Five Year Plans for
profTotina research in environtrental subicets. and the Environmen-
tal Research Committee (ERC) and the Indian National Man and the
Biosphere (MAB) Res* arch Committee were constituted to assist the
Department of Science end lechnoloqy initially and later the
Department of Environment in fosterino and supporting research
work Such environmental research work is now hcinq sponsored by
the National Comfritlee on Environmental Planning (NCEP).

From all the above it is abundantly clear that environmen-
tal education at all levels is a primary necessity in order that
we may be able to preserve the environment in sufficiently heal-
thy state to support all life including human life on earth, as
It has been said that whatever happens to beasts soon happens to
man (Burton, 1977) By making animals extinct, let us not become
extinct ourselves*

REFERENCES

Agarwal Ami. Ravi Chopra and kalpana Sharma. 1982. The State
of India s Environment 1962 A citirens Report. Centre

for Science and Enviroiurvnt New Delhi

Anon. 1904 Environs, 1964

Anon. 1984. Scioence Age 2 (6) 59. Aug I98a.

Reproduced from USA Today May 1904

Ashby Sir Eric 1971 Chairman Royal Commission on Environmen
tal Pollution, First Report Paras 36 39.

Bachkhetl. N.D 1981. Keynote Address at National Seminar on
Forest and Environment Bangalore, 2-3 December 1981.

Bliss-Guest. Patricia Quoted in Fcoforum 7 (3) 17 September

1982.

Burton. John Naturopa 28 1977

Chandrasekharan, N.S 1984 Structure and Functioning of Environ-
mental Protection Agency A Fresh look. In Law and Environ-
ment, p 177-166 University of Cochin.

Chenqapoa, Raj India Today. Auoust 31, 1983. pp 96-97.

Connect III (4) December 1978
V (4) December 1980
VIII (2) September 1983

Cubberly Pan. 1983. Focus 5 (1) 6 Feb. 1983.

Dasgupta Biplab, 1978. Economic and Political Weekly 13 385-

EHVIRONKENTAL POLLUHON CONTROL AND ZCOLOGY IN NEYVEUI

S. SrinivasaraRhavan*

Neyvell Lignite Corportion is a frivemment of India Enter-
prise in the Department of Coal under the Ministry of Energy. It
is located in Soutn Arcot District of Tamil Nadu, 200 Wn south of
Madras. Utilising lignite available in Neyvell area, the follow-
ing Industrial units are in operation:

1. Mine I of 6.5 mllltcn tonnes of lignite per annin capacity.

2. A Thenrial Power Statlen-l of COO yu Installed capacity (fix
SO KW 4 3x100 MW) uslnq lignite as fuel.

3. A Briquetting and Carbonisation Plant (BiC Plant) of an
annual capacity of 327.000 tonnes of carbonised briquettes
of lignite named leco * and 109. W)0 tonnes of charflnes.

а, A Process Steam Plant, supplying process steam to Fertili-
zer and Briquetting and Carbonisation Plants. The process
Steam Plant uses as fuel. Lignite and Tar. neutral oil and
surplus gas the last three being chemical by-products from
the Briquetting S Carbonisation Plant.

5. A Fertilizer plant with an annual production capacity of
152,000 tonnes of urea has been in operation since 1965.
using lignite as feedstock. The feedstock was changed over
to furnace on in 1979.

б. A Clxy washing plant with an arnual capacity of 6000 tonnes
washed white clay, using clay occurring in the lignite mine.

The following new projects are under construction:

1. Second Mine Stage-l (4.7 million tonnes per annum)

2. Second Power Station Stage-I of 630 KW (3x210 MM)

The following expansion projects sanctioned in 1983 by the
Govenwnt of India have been taken up for execution:

1. Second Mine Stage-II (From 4,7 to 10.5 mill, t/yr)

2. Second Power Station Stage-II (from 630 MM to 1470 n by
the addition of 4x210 HM sets.)

3. aoOkV transmission lines from Neyveli to Madras and Neyveli
to Salem and 230 KV line Neyveli to Pondicherry with switch-
ing facilities.

Feasibility Reports for the following new Projects nave been
submitted recently to the Government of India.

1. Third Mine of capacity 11 million tonnes per annum.

2- Third Thermal Power Station of 1500 MM (3x500 MW) Installed
capacity, supported by the Third Mine.

•Aei/velii Corporation, Wni/voli, ToaJJ //adu, India

A^S

3. First Hire Second Expansion from 6.5 to 10.5 million tonnes
per annum.

4. Expansion of First Thermal Station to 720 Hrf by addition of
one unit of 120 HW capacity with lignite supply from the
First Hire Second Expansion.

5. High Temperature Carbonisation Plant of an annual capacity
of 4 lakh tonnes of hard metallurgical coke with lignite
supply from the First Hine Secofwl Expansion.

6. 4C0 KV transmission system for evacuation of power from the
second stage of the Second Power Station.

7. 400 kV transmission system for evacuation of power from the
Third Power Station.

DESCRIPTION OF INtMSTMAL UNITS AND
THEIR EKVIRONMENTM. ASPECTS

First Thermal Power Station (600 W)

This Themal Power Station (NTPS I) ccrtprlses six units of
50 HW each and three units of tOO mk each. Each 50 MW Turbo Gene-
rator is fed by a Steam Generator (single Crum, natural circula-
tion, dry bottorn, pulverised»ligntte*nred, two-pass, non-reheat
type) oroduclng superheated steam (220 t/hr at 540 *0 and 101
kg/CBi . Eacn lOO mw Turbo Generator is fed by two similar boilers
of same capacity. The first SO MW unit was conrelssloned in 1962
and the last 100 KW unit in 1970. The other units were comisslo-
ned in betweeen, in stages.

. The Power Station is located at the pithead of Hlre-I and
gets its lignite requirements frcm the nine by means of two belt
conveyor systems with an intermediate Ground Storage Bunker.
Within Thermal Station, storage bonkers of reinforced concrete
construction receive the lignite. Internal system of conveyors
transports lignite from these bunkers to crushers where llonlte
is crushed to 20 inn size. From the crushers, lignite ooes to the
boiler bunkers. Each boiler Is equipped with four pulverising
mills, each being fed by Its own scraper/belt feeder, drawing the
crushed lignite from the bolter bunker.

The boiler is fed by pulverised lignite with gross calorific
value of about 2900 kcalAg and average ash and sulphur contents
of 7i and b.ST, respectively.

The main fuel fer the boilers Is lignite, furnace oil being
used only for start-up end flame stabllllsatlon. Each boiler
requires about 15C0 tons lignite per day.

Fly ash collection Is dene by mechanical precipitators of
about fi5t efficiency. The ash as well as bottom slag is hydrauli-
cally sluiced to an ash pood 2 km away where the ash settles and
clear weater only flows out over a surpluslng weir to a nearby
nallah. This water has been chemically tested and found harmless.

416

The exhaust flue gases drawn fron the furnace by the Induced
Draught Fans escape through the ehirmey at an exit velocity of
22.8 m/sec at 158 'C. There are four stacks, serving twelve
boilers as detailed below

Stack No. Height (ir) Boilers

1 60 t. 2. 3

2 60 4. 5, 6

3 60 7A 4 7B Of 7th Unit

4 120 BA, RB. 9A 8 9B Of

8th and 9th units.

A.O.H. plant with a capacity of 90 m per hour of treated
water, provides the necessary irake-up water for the boiler feed.

Closed cycle circulating water systen with Induced Draft
Cooling towers ts adopted in the station. The outlet water fron
the condenser at a tenperature of 40 *C Is cooled In the cooling
towers to 30.5 "C. Kake-up water for the circulating water systen
is net from the lake, which stores the water pirped out from the
deep aquifers of the First Hlne.

Neyveli Second Thermal Power Station (Stages I 8 II}

The first stage of Second Thermal Power Station consists of
three units of 210 KW capacity. Constructlcn of the above Is In
progress.

The boilers are of single dnn, natural clruculatlon, dry
bottoo, single reheat, pulverlsd«llgrilte»flped type, having bals>
need draft furnace. They are of tower type design to nlnlBlte
erosion by fly ash. The boiler will be capable of generating 690
t/hr of superheated stean at 158 ata. pressure and 540 'C.

Each boiler will have 6 beaterwheel nllls all round the fur>
race, each will serve one pulverised fuel burner. The boilers ere
designed for 1001 lignite firing, fuel oil being used only during
st8rt>up and for flame stabilisation.

To Halt envlrolnnetttal pollution to the BlnlBim the dust
precipitation and collection system will have Electrostatic Pre-
cipitators of 991 efficiency arranged in six electrical fields
but five of the fields can give 991 efficiency, *•

Each boiler is provided with an Individual Reinforced cenent
concrete stack of 170 m height. The exit velocity of the gases at
25 a/sec. and 149 *C will further add to the plume rise and
Irprove the effective stack height before dispersion.

Closed cycle circulating water syst-a with Natural Draft
Cooling Towers is adopted In the station. The outlet water froa
the condensers at 4i •€ will be cooled in the cooling towers to
32 ®C for reuse In the condensers. The cooling tower is of 116 a
height end 90 a base dle-neter. Make up water for the circulating
water systen 1$ ret fron the lake which stores the water,
out from the aquifers of the Second Mine.

417

M4ter required for t^e boiler nake up is obtained from
DeAineralised water plant which oets its raw water frcn a bore-
well situated close to the D.H. Plant.

Lignite will be received froea the nine by a single line of
belt conveyors and stored In the open storage yard in the power
station. The yard has a storage capacity of 1S6,000 t with provls
on for covered storage of about 20.0001. Two streams of conveyors
wilt feed the boiler bunkers after pretinlnary crushing.

The requlreewnt of lignite will be about SOOO tons per day
per boiler. As the lignite has a moisture content of about 50t,
there will be little pollution, owing to Lignite dust. However
hy^ants with sprinkler arrangement will be located around the
lignite stockyard to supress the dust. Tall trees will be grown
on the periphery of the stockyard to further trap the fugitive
dust.

The fly ash as well as the bottom ash will be nixed with
water and hydraulically sluiced to an Ash Disposal Punp House
whence the ash slurry will be punp^ out through pipes to a large
ash dunplng area 2.5 km away. Ash will be retained in the dump
and the clear supematent water will be surplussed to a nearby
nallah.

Four more similar units of 210 KW capacity will be added to
the first stage in the same station a>umpound as stage-II exten-
sion. This project was approved by the Goverirent of India In
February 1$83 and has been taken up for execution. The eoulpnent
for stage-II will be similar to that of Stage-] and the require-
ments of fuel, cooling water, and Oemlneralised water and produc-
tion of fly ash will be proportional to the corresponding $tage-I
quantltltes.

With a view to control ambient pollution further, the Indi-
vidual stack heights of the boilers In Stage-II are proposed to
be as high as 220 n as against 170 n obtaining in stage 1.

Envlronrontal clearance for Keyvell Second Power Station,
Stages I & II has been obtained from the Central and State autho-
rities to whom environmental impact staten«nts as prescribed,
have been submitted with details of nature of air and water
pollution likely to be caused and the remedial measures, proposed
to be taken thereof to safeguard the biosphere.

EHVIRONKENTAL IMPACT OF THSF«AL STATIONS AND REMEDIAL STEPS

The malR polUxtaots QalU«i fccm the * 1 ? ThftTOil P-snev
Stations are particulate matters end Sulphur dioxide, besides
oxides of nitrogen and hydrocerboris. The degree of pollution
depends on factors such as quality and ouantlty of fuel used,
type of firing, efficiency of operation, anxjunt and type of waste
emission, meteorological conditions and topography of power plant
area and adjoining habitations. As prolonged exposure to polluted
atmosphere is Injurious to Ixmn as well as plant life and has a

418

corrosive effect on eiaterlals. It Is necessary to minimise the
impact of pollutants.

Particulate Pollution

Lignite has an ash content of about 6 to 71 which is very
ituch lower than the ash content of average Indian coals (upto
401). For minimising pollution by particulates, the abatenent
technology chosen for the projects under construction at Neyvell
is electrostatic nreclpJtatlon.

The electrostatic precipitators depend on static electricity
and are highly efficient for removal of a wide range of particu-
lates. The efficiency of ash collection Is of the order of 99X.

The electrostatic precipitators In Neyvell Second Power
Station have six electrical fleld<. the capacity being such that
even with 5 fields, dust collection efficiency of 991 Is guaran-
teed. Thus sufficient margin has been built In for reliable
operation.

The fly ash escaping through the stacks of 17D/220 n height
will be dispersed over a wide area resulting In mlnlBun ambient
pollution.

Sglphur Dioxide Pollution

The sulphur content of Ifgtnlte is about 0.51 to 0.61 oxide
of sulphur escape through the ehlmney causing air pollution.
High concentration of SO In the atmosphere could result in incre-
ased morbidity and mortality from respiratory diseases In hunan
beings end cause damage to aninal/plant life and to materials.
Once In the atmosphere, SO would react photochemlcally or cata-
iytlcally with other constituents to fom sulphur trloxlde, sul-
phuric acid end salts of sulphuric acid.

SO and SO are washed out of the air by rain or settle out
as aerosols end ere absorbed by soil and plants. But, In local
atmospheric Inversions, high ambient concentration can build upto
hazardous levels end given still air conditions, these can per-
sist for long periods.

r?<e possible strategies available to minimise 50 pollution
Include {al Dilution to atmosphere by tall stacks, (b) Fuel
oesulphurlsatlon (c) Flue gas desulpohurisatlon (d) Power Plant
siting away from populated areas.

No comercialiy viable method Is available In the country at
present for rerovlng SO from fuel or flue gas. Even In developed
countries like USA and France where the extraction plants are In
operation, it Is gathered that the Initial and running costs are
very high maintenance is troublesome and frequent failures compel
the authorities to shut down the main generating plant, thus
reducing the plant availability.

Also indigenous Research and Development efforts are yet to

419

yield results In developing suitable desulpburlsatlon olants
which can be Installed and nperated eccrorilcally. Hence the
abatement strategy adopted In India U provision of tall stacks.
Although there Is no reduction In Wie quantity of onisslon, tall
stacks assist in dispersion with conseauentlal reduction of
ground level concentration Ixatly In most weather conditions.

Detailed studies have been done by NlC's consultants in
respect of design of chlmieys vi$>a>vls air pollution and as per
their retoirrieridatlons. Individual stacks of 170 n height have
been adopted for Neyveli Second Power Station Stage-I units, 220
n height stacks are proposed for Stace-II units.

Solid and Liquid waste Disposal

As already mentioned, fly ash Is disposed of through hydrau-
lic sluicing to an ash dinp away frcn the power station. There Is
also provision for collecting dry ash to cater the demand frcn
the cement manufacturers as the ash is found to have pozzalona
properties. Research and Oevelopnent work has been done on the
fly ash by NLC engineers and scientists in collaboration with
others for using it as a building materials and the results
therefrom have been enauractng. Field studies have proved that
partial substitution of ash can save uplo of cerent by weloht
In cement concerete without any loss of strength In the latter,
fly ash has been used in low cost housing in Neyveli. The Centre
for Applied Research and Oevelopnent of Neyveli has developed
distempers, insulating bricks, light weight aggregate from fly
ash. Fly ash nixed with cement has also been used In road-making
in Neyveli area. Thus a waste product and pollutant is being
converted Into a useful one.

After meeting the requirements of the custorners like cenent
manufacturers and Internal use in NIC. the balance ash Is hydrau-
lically disposed of. In order to ensure that the ash dizrp does
not create nuisance, the dunrps will be surrounded by trees, which
will be planted all round the enl>ankinent. As and when the ash
dump gets completely filled up, they win be reclaimed. levelled
and suitable trees will be planted.

The main water effluent from the power station is the suoer-
natent water from the ash dump. The quality of water discharged
from the ash pond of First Thermal Station has been chemically
tested vide Annexure-I end found to be harmless. This clear
water fs iet fnto tAe nearby naffab which flows over NLC land.

Fuel Handling Emission

In Thermal Statlon-I, lignite Is stored In closed bunkers
whereas In Thennal Statlon.|I lignite will be stored in open
storage yard to facilitate easy handling and flow of lignite.
The stock piled lignite will be reclaimed through reclaimers and

422

vegetation, soil erosion and wash off from the soil dumps and
generation of dust.

The stripped soil Is dumped outside the mine till sufficient
space Is created inside for fill back operation. Thus the soli
excavated, after dumping, forms big heaps and if they are left
unattended over a period of tine, heavy soil erosion will occur,
owing to winds and monsoon rains. This would lead to filling up
of drainage courses. Oust gets alr-bome. Is carried away and
gets deposited in the residential buildings of the township. To
mitigate these 111-effects, soil dumps are levelled, adequate
drainage courses laid out and side slopes flattened to minimise
erosion. If necessary, additional bunds, masonry chutes, check
dams etc., will be erected for the same purpose.

Afforestation is a well known method of preventing erosion
of the soil dumps. Hence suitable creepers, which will act as
soil binders are being grown on the slopes and different species
of suitable trees planted on the dump. The overburden is sterile
and lacks nutrients and hence, manuring is resorted to rehabili-
tate the soil. Reclamation of the inside filling area is contemp-
lated by dumping top soli separately over the already dump^
area in Klne-II and III.

As master plan for maintaining tne ecological balance has
been prepared with the assistance of "International Forestry
Consultant" and a massive afforestation progranme has been laun-
ched In the project area. The vegetatlonal barriers will improve
the moisture content and stability of the sol), arrest wind-blown
dust and reduce noise as well. Based on the recomendatlons of
the consultant, steps have been taken (a) to conserve land degra-
ded by open east mining by stabilising and revegetatlng the
affected areas, (b) to provide or supplement the existing resour-
ces of fuel, fodder, small timber, fruits, vegetables, fish meat
etc., to the local people, (c) to provide recreetJonal facilities
by way of establishing parks, pla^rounds etc., to residents to
ensure a better atmosphere and (d) to achieve a rational utilisa-
tion of the vast, resources of aquifer water foe power. Industry,
agriculture, forestry, fisheries etc.

With the implementation of the massive afforestation schemes
soil erosion will be reduced. Climate will Improve. Small ponds,
formed over the dumps, will attract water fowl. When the barren
lands are clothed with greenery, the dreary appearance of the
soil dumps will be a thing of the past and a new chapter In
recreation forestry will be ushered in.

OUST CWTROL

The foratlon of dust in the mechanised open pit Is due to
various factors like huge material handling, transport vehicles,
blasting and operating of mining equipment. The following methods
are adopted to reduce generation and dispersal of dust:

423

s. Use of sharp teeth for BWE's end their tinely replacenent
when worn out.

b. Use of sharp drill bits for drilling blast holes.

c. Modification of hoppers at the transfer points, and

d. Spraying of water on roads and other dusty areas.

Fleet operators of conventional egulf^nt. who are likely to
travel under dusty condition, will be provided with respirators.

In the first mine, studies conduted in collaboration with
the Regional Labour Institute, Madras, revealed that the actual
dust/lignite concentrations In most places in the mine were found
to be less than the threshold limit values.

TT)e workers are subject to regular iredlcal checkups at
specified Intervals in the Department of Industrial Hygiene and
Occupational Diseases of the General Hospital of Neyvell Lignite
Corporation. Similar procedures will be continued in respect of
the on-going end future projected also.

HOtSC C0NTI»».

Holse, l.e. unwanted sound, causes general feeling of annoy-
ance and Irritability, Interference wlUi wanted sound, distrac-
tion. fatigue and reduction In performance efficiency. Exposure
to excessive and prolcngeo noise may raise blood pressure, cause
depression ano damage the human ear.

Noise is caused by several mining operations like blasting,
operation of EWE *3 etc. Tractors, du^rs, excavators and the
like generate noise, during movement and operation, which cannot
be totally avoided. However, measures are taken to ensure that
noise level Is muffled by the use of silencers. Ear protection
devices are provided wherever necessary. Proper greasing end
lubrication of machinery Is also carried out through preventive
maintenance to reduce the Intensity of noise produced.

The township Is situated away frcni the mines. Further, tall
trees In the township serve to attenuate the noise level. There-
fore the township Is totally free from direct disturbance from
Its polluting sources.

Effect of vibrations

Vibrations are caused due to moving parts of the mining
machinery and transport vehicles. Regular checking end proper
maintenance is carried out to reduce the vibrations to tolerable
limits.

The effect of vibration, emanating from the blasting opera-
tions In the mine, on the buildings was studied and blasting
techniques were suitably modified to establish safety In this
regard.

424

WING OF MINE HATER AM) ITS EFFECT

The quantitative and qualitative sodulatlons In water, due
to ulning, poses probleais to the nine and its environs. Pollu-
tion, Inundation, subsldeiKe. saline water Intrusion In coastal
zones, drying of wells and fluctuation of water table are differ-
ent facets of the problen.

In Heyvell dining area, the grtxjnd water exerts an upward
thrust of 5 to B kg/cB, and before dining lignite, this pressure
has to be controlled to avert heaving of the nine floor. The
cone of depression caused by purping operations for ground water
control in a seal-conf Joed agulfer Is being nalntalned with care
so that no ham is done to the water potential end the Neyvell
environs. By proper ground water budgeting, the water balance Is
salntalned In tact.

FERTILIZER PUWT

The Fertilizer Plant has been in operation frta 1965 to 1979
using lignite as feed stock. The feed stock has been switched
over to furnace oil since 1979. The designed capacity of the
plant is 152,000 tons urea per annua. Specific censieption of
furnace oil is about 0.6 kl per ton urea. Furnace oil has a
gropss calorific value of 9696 kcalAg end has a sulphur content
of 4S cuxltrun being 4.5t. Its carbon content is about 621. Of
late LGKS Is also used as an alternative fuel in the place of
furnace oil. Gross ealorlfle value of ISKS Is 10,280 kcalAg.
and Its carbon and sulphur contents are about 876 and 1.7SX,
respectively.

The factory is divided Into five naln sections viz. (1) Sas
6enerat!on. (2) 6as purification. (3) Air and Gas fractions, (4)
Anaenia and {$) Orea.

By partial oxidation of the fuel oil using stean and oxygen,
a gas containing ealnly co and hydrogen Is produced. The gas alx-
ture is purified, and CO is converted to CO . The gases CO and
hydrogen are separated and the pure CO Is sent to urea section,
l^rogen Is sent to Gas fractlwj section to ■!* with Nitrogen
which is obtained frm air fractionation In the ratio 8:1 and Is
sent to esnonla section where It is pressurised and convert^ to
anaenia In Montleatlne converter. The oxygen obtained in air
fractionation 1$ used for oil gasification. The liquid aieonla
and cartxjn dioxide are eocblned to fora urea. The urea aelt Is
sprayed fromthe top of the prilling tower to fora urea prills.

SolM ksstes

Carton pellets are obtained as solid waste product in the
oil gasification plant and they are stored separately in the open
yard for disposal to prospective buyers.

425

Ash from process steam boilers are disposed in the form of
slurry using waste water.

Gaseous Pollutants Dispersed Through stacks

(i) There is a chimney In Gas ftjrification Plant having a
height of 30 m emitting flue gases containing SO obtained by
Incineration of H S off gases which Is within the limits prescri-
bed by pollution control board.

(11) There Is a stack with a hei^t of 3Cni in the Air and gas
fractionation plant used as flare stack for burning tail gas to
CO .

(ill] A flare stack with a height of about acini is in the gasi-
fication section to flare and bum occasionally the raw gas at
times of emergencies and during startup for a short period.

Liquid Waste

Main liquid effluent Is the cooling water blow down from
various sections. They are let out Into the drains and the combi-
ned effluents of the entire factory is discharged into the Inland
surface water system going through the landed properties of
N.L.C.

Occasional liquid effluents from urea Plant containing anrno-
nium carbonate are led into a protected lagoon from where they
are allowed to evaporate. The effluent condensate from HCN strip-
per overhead condenser and the effluent as carbon slurry frem
slurry separator of the oil gasification section contains cyanide
as Impurity. The HCN bearing effluent from this section goes to
effluent treatment plant where the concentration of cyanide In
the effluent Is completely removed by chlorination using bleach-
ing powder.

The effluent after being treated with bleaching powder is
allowed to pass through settling tanks Inside the Fertilizer
factory and let into the drain.

BRIQUETTING AND CARBONISATION PLANT

In this plant raw lignite from the nines is crushed, dried,
compressed and carbonised for manufacturing lignite coke called
Leco which finds extepsive agpllcatlons both as aa LatittfLal
fuel and as chemical reductant. As an Industrial fuel this Is
used in industries such as cement, paper, tea, textiles, frl^
gram, refractory, bricks and tiles, tyre retreading, match and
sago industries. Leco substitutes for hard coke derived from coal
procured mainly from upcountry and Is superior for use as a
chemical reductant on account of its low ash and low sulphur
content, phosphorous being almost nil. As a good reductant, it
finds wide applications in several Industries such as Calcium

426

Carbide. Ferroalloys. Mlnl-steel Industries, foundries, pig Iron
and Tltaniuffl Industries, Some of the Industries have switched
over from furnace oil to Leco thereby contributing to substantial
saving In foreign exchange, leco is also used as a domestic fuel
and as such helps to save thousands of trees frcxn felling.

In the process of briquetting and carbonising, several use-
ful byproducts like carbolic add. mjltlvalent phenol, ortho
Cresol, metapara-cresol, xylenol. tar and neutral oil are obtain-
ed. These byproducts are used In many Industries such as phama-
ceutlcals. resins, disinfectants etc.

The major sections in the plant ere {0 Briquetting Plant,
(11) Carbonisation Plant. (Ill) Char Handling Plant, and (Iv) Tar
Products Unit.

The raw lignite from the mine with a moisture content of 52
to 56* Is crushed to a sire of 0.8 cn. The crushed lignite Is
dried in tubular driers. The dried lignite with 9-111 moisture
content Is then compressed in quadruple extrusion processes which
are 13 In number. In the low temperature carbonisation plant the
raw briquettes are converted into a char product which Is Iiroy
and resistant to shatter and abrasion, by carefully heating it in
the absence of air and removing volatile matter. The capacity of
the plant Is 327.000 tonnes of UCO and 109,000 tonnes of char-
flnes per anmn. The gross calorific value of LECO Is 6700 to
7100 kcalAg which makes it an excellent fuel.

In the process of briquetting and carbonisation several
useful byproducts like carbolic add. irultlvalent phenol, ertho-
cresot, metaoaracresol, xylol, tar and neutral oil are obtained.

No fuel 1$ used directly in this plant. While carbonising
the raw briquettes which is made out of lignite (raw material for
the process), gas evolved In carbonlser plant Is used as heating
medium.

Raw water for the plant is obtained from the lake which Is
filled by groundwater pumped out from mines.

Solid Wastes

The fine dry lignite dust In the conveyorsAtatnp pits Is
extracted by the deducting blowers where It Is sludged with water
in order to minimise the dust pollution in the atmosphere. The
sludge frcm the blowers Is led to sludge pits through pipe line
and open channel. The sludge Is allowed to settle in the pits.
The lignite dust that has settled in the pits Is renoved manually
and stacked outside for sales as •'lignite dust".

ilQuit Wastes

The liquid effluent coming from various sections con-
tains traces of nitrates, chlorides, sulphates etc. Total dissol-
ved solids In the effluent are kept within limits. The toxic

428

meet the boiler feed pump requirements of PSP and heat recovery
boilers of Fertilizer Plant. The recenerated effluent Is neutra-
lised to be alkaline, in a neutralising pit before being let into
the effluent channels of Fertilizer Plant.

NETVEll AND THE ENVIRONS

Location

Neyvell is located 200 km south-west of Madras in the South
Arcot district. Metre goage rail link of the Southern Railway
connects it to Vrldhachalam and Cuddalore. Neyvell Is well
connected by all weather roads to nearby towns like Vrldhachalam.
Cuddalore. Chidambaram. Panrutl and Pondicherry.

Meteorology

Neyvell climate Is tropical and Is largely Influenced by the
conditions in the Bay of Bengal which is about 45 km east of
Neyvell. The relative humidity at Neyvell Is 26 to 78T In sismer
and 40 to 97T in the monsoon months.

There Is a prolonged dry season from January to June when
the mean dally maximum temperature is between 33 and 37*C. Occa-
sionally the maximum temperature crosses 40*C in Hay. The onset
of south-west monsoon winds {July to September) brings seme
relief to the region. During the north-east monsoon (October to
December), the mean dally maximum temperature varies from 27 to
3i*C. The coolest months are December and January with miniinjni
temperature drooping to 20*C and lower. The evaporation rate is
Tat»>er high during the sunme icnths being 10 to 12 in a day in
Hay. The average annual evaporation rate is about 1800 m.

The wind velocity varies from 10 to 70 km/hr. A maximum
velocity of 129.6 km/hr was recorded during the cyclone in August
1979. Cyclonic weather Is encountered almost every year during
the northeast monsoon period. Hind direction is as follows:

Wind Direction
E

Calm

Total days

No.of days/year
45
98
8
4
18
65
23
70
14
365

The average annual rainfall is 1200 mm. Nearly 78T of the

429

precipitation is received fron the Jiorth-east flwnsoor during
October to DeceiTber. The south-west ronsoon accounts for some
rainfal. An analysis of the rainfall data from 1950 to 1983 shows
that the nufrber of rainy days per year ranges from 36 to 103
days. The average rainfall for a period of 24 hours can be taken
as less than 25 ran but a ralnstorr of about 150 ran intensity is
not uncomron. Only for about 6 or 7 days in a year, the intensity
exceeds 50 imi.

Demographic Profile

The sprawling township of Neyvell covers on area of 34 sq.km
with a population of about 150,000. There are about 13,200 quar-
ters in the township. The township is well-planned and provided
with iredern facilities like banks, post and telegraph offices,
hospitals, schools, shops and recreation facilities etc. Hater
suoDl 2 to the township Is proivided by a series of well-distribu-
ted borewells with overhead tanks. The major population centres
within 40-km radius are Cuddalore (127.600), Vlllupuram (77,100),
Chidambaram (55,900). vridhachalan (42,100) and Panrutl (43,000).

Land and Landuse Pattern

The commonest type of soli found in township area Is red
soil, derived from granitic gneiss and crystalline schists. Red
soil Is acidic and generally poor tn nitrogen, phosphorus and
humus. In the exposed and weathered location process of laterlsa-
tlon is observed. The lateritlc soil contains little of silicate
minerals and Is generally poor in nutrients.

The locality was originally a small shrub forest. Here and
there were a few groves of cashew and tamarind. Major portion of
the area has seasonal crops. Irrigated by rain-fed tanks and
water drawn by bullocks from wells. Part of the land is also
Irrigated by bore-well pumps. Dry crops like millet were also
raised.

There are no flora and fauna specific to the area.

Township andTree Plantation

Trees have a salutory effect on tfw envlrormert. The dense
foliage of the trees filter dust from the air and absorb It, thus
purifying the attrosphere. Trees also serve to attenuate the
intensity of noise and reduce the wind speed. They have a marked
effect on the tnlcrocl Imate and improve moisture retention of the
soil by shedding dead leaves to form humus.

NLC Is aware of the significance of trees In maintaining a
healthy ecology and hence launched a massive prograrane of tree
planting to cover vacant areas, avenues and tne residential
areas. Trees like Delonlx regia (6ul Mohar), Parkia biglandulnsa

430

(cannon ball tree), and Abblzzia lebbek (vagal) have been planted
along the avenues. Details of trees planted during 1962/83 end
63/84 tn Neyveli area are given Ijelow which Inclt/cte not only
exotic varieties like subabul and eucalyptus but also native ones
like cashew and tamarind. The nuater of trees planted so far
works out to 200 per eirployee.

Trees planted in township, spoil banks and the on.going
project sites are as under*

Total

Eucalyptus Hybrid

1388, B34

Casurlna equisetifolia

645,175

Bamobu YOendroca lamus strlctus )

tt7,5M

Subabul (Leucaena leucocephaia)

226,730

Acacia auricuiiTormis

207,883

Cashew and other trutt trees

3,500

Silk Cotton etc.

400

Agave tnexicana

508,500

EucalvDtus" citrlodara
iamarinous indtca

76,530

14.600

Acnvan

25,100

Other plants

43.448

Total

3350,700

As the Nevell soil is suitable for raising Jack, citrus and
kapok trees, the residents, have giw> them In their gardens/com.
pounds. The Horticultural Department of MC raises nurseries end
transplants them at different places in the vast area. During the
planting season, it distributes saplings of eucalyptus, subabul
and silk cotton to the residents, free of cost.

A timber treatment plant, based on As*Cu Impregnation has
been installed In Neyvell. This chemical treatment renders low
grade timber fungus and temite-proof and dimensionally stable.
The treated timber with better functional end weatnerlng proper-
ties, could feed a n\r(ber of timber-based Industries besides
Neyvell S own construction activities.

In order to prevent dust nuisance, most of the roads In its
township have been topped.

Pollution Monitoring

NIC maintains a well equipped Centre for Applied Research
and Development, where facilities have been provided to monitor
pollution also. Air samples for determining the content of S02
and particulates In the ambient air are collected and analysed. A
network of sampling stations In and around the township has been

451

Identified and regular samples are collected at these points and
analysed in the laboratory.

The flue gas analysers for the analysis of oxygen, carbon
moncxidc and dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrotgen oxides etc. have
been ordered for NSPS Stage-I and slntlar instrumentation will be
procured for Stage-II also.

CONCLUSIONS

In brief, the fallowing antl-pollutlcr measures nave beer
adopted In NIC to alleviate the adverse effects of pollution.

1. Even at the stage of project formulation, evaluation of
environmental factors has been made and certain safeguards built-
in, such as suitable design of tall chlimey stacks and provision
of electrostatic precipitators of required efficiency In Thermal
Power Stations.

2. In order to reduce dust nuisance, hydraulic handling of
fly ash has been adopted In thermal stations, the effluents being
discharged into a suitable ash dump, long enough to settle the
deposits so that clear supernatant water only will be surplussed
to a suitable drainage system.

3. NLC is well aware of the importance of maintaining a
healthy ecology and the role of greenei^ therein. A master plan
has been prepared with the assistance of a Forestry Consultant
and a massive afforestation progranne has been launched In the
project area. Including the township. This scheme will also
stabilise and revegetate the soil dun^s of the nines and arrest
wind-blown dust and erosion of the dumps.

4. Adcouate measures are taken to mlnitnlse noise pollutlor
by specifying suitable nathlnery and equipment and their proper
maintenance,

5. In chemical plants, gaseous pollutants are burnt atop
flare stacks and liquid wastes are suitably treated, diluted to
safe limits and then discharged Into drains.

6. Facilities have been provided In the Centre for Applied
Research and Pevelopment (CARO) for monitoring pollution In the
Neyveli area by collecting air and water samples and analysing
them.

Thus, it may be seen that adequate safeguards have been
provided in Nyvell for a healthy envirorment. Neyveli has proved
that Industry and healthy environs need not be antithetical but
can co-exist for the benefit of mankind.

msi 13 tha cidst of It. Ha ^Muld »t trncasm oa» vlsdUSK porio-
dically aM satlafy hlwalf by «l»laK olaSorat* lacopotles mtma
aaJ tbea forpat the ««iole laeloHaK laatltotlos till th* mxt
l>vpe«tie3. He s^vuld be eoaetastly aad Istlntaly ajoedatad
with hla asalita-est all the tin aad be doihK Justice.

Ihea cere other problcns. la the pest, agricultural opera*
tlo39 have Ires freely, aal liberally alipe d by differeat autho-
rities. As a result we a*e wet cultivation la the tddlle of the
•Rids’ stretires we-y close to the seassests or la between the
n^u-eats aal so oa. This can be aeea sar the eoasseats like the
Oiaatras'kara te^le. Octafuasl ttath. Elephant Stables, Jala aad
Siva Terules. fisdsvl-Uan Saraswatl ter^le, Krishas Gazer, Vgra*
Seraleha. Soli bazar etc., to aare oaly a fe«. It la needless to
state that culte a larre airber of places there are eauuacheeata
by the entivated atnculCurlats. The aolutioa la that whole of
the 'ib*rpl Puiss* should b* declared as a protected ar ea asl It
should b* passed oa to a ceatrat authority fer protectloa a^
conservatlna. It ray st be leproper if the presently mltlvated
lands are aeculred bv th- guvero eat after poyiaa cu-vesatloa or
so. This wall :K]t oaly facilitate the coaservatioa work la the
•Riilio* but also save of the eoas^ata presently affected by

waterlonrlac. percolatloa of eater, capillary action of daT>»ss,
uador euttlac of the fouMstloa. as can be seea la the Siva
Terple, Sooll Gatar, Krl^aa Bazar, lypa baraslzha, fort Kill,
ffste^aya etc. Thereafter, feasible areas asi selected spots eaa
be eaawerted lato arehaeolotleal mrdeas, olf course ks^as la
view primarily the safety of the soajreats sad eavlroseatal
eohesloa, ia order to beeutlfy whole area and coke it pleasing
asal ea,(oysble to the visitor.

Next step la the coaservatioa of Ifanpl Ruls should be

to prohibit the whole area for cattle-pazdag, flreraod cutting,
sto;e cuarylnK aai such other activities iCUch create a szlsance.
Particularly, herds of cattle awing about without aay restric-
tion sjt only rake all approach roads ugly and filthy with their
droFpiajrs, but also da-ece the eoasreats specially the delicate
structural re-aiae exposed la the re c ent excavations end so on,
i':»*a3ted macle rlearaaee, grass euttiac eaa be allowed by the
nrope- autho-ltv on ocessions and as per the seed but without
forgettiaz or overlookisg the principles of coaservatioa of such
cultiffal heritage,

Ataia, the shale area should be prohibited for the coastruc-
tioa of 83V rrjdern structures lacluding huts or hutaents. for
whatev-r pxirpops* they a-e oeest for. In this coanectioa It my
be rantioaed that the Jala establishrent oa the Rataskuata hill
of tenpi is a jereat eve-sore, not only at the spot but Oven fror#
a distance. It e*ry not be feasible at this stage to do aray with
ti>-ae. At least these Cxilldiags can be given colour-wash eaderas-
llv which can rake them eer ge with the ewlroa^st. At preseat
they have been given white llire-eaah, ajil as such they are seea

435

glorisfly frcn ndles. the sam tiim further co»tructioos are
to be prctiiblted strictly. SlMlarly. the casteea tulldlJS of the
Karaitaha Govt. Iburlst Oepartnest osar the Hazara Ram Terrple Is
quite uadeslreble. This seeds to be Mddes by ralaisff « tall aM
thick shrubbery all arousd, as is dose at other places by the
Archaeolojdcal Survey of ladla. Ihe purpose for uhleh this has
been coMtructed also required to be reviewed and action taken to
have optlnun use of it which is i»t the case at present.

The present Archa^oloirlcal Huseun building having been loca>
ted a bit away appears to be dlaeoanscted with the unit of 'Harrpi
Rulu'. When the whole area la protected. It should include this
Museun also. This muaewi should be c ome part of the or^niaation
for the preservation of Hampl Ruins. The visitors should have
access- to it ri^it from the sain road, the intervening modern
buildings belonging to the local rural cooperative society, rural
dispensery, school etc., are acquired, conpesoated end demolished
since tliey also obstruct the germrat enyironrontal setting. The
iruseun Is a autplereot to the study of the rronurenta. Hence it is
a part of the site both for preservation of cultural objects and
presenting th*vn In proper perspective for the benefit of the
public la their study of the site, its histcfry, culture anrt so
on. It has an Icportant role to play on th^se aspects In the days
to etsBo, like any ottw <ruse^an. Keepisg this potentiality of the
nuseun in view, the above action Is also necessary irrespective
of the maetary aspect.

Next la the Ikrrpi Oszar (car^street) which dernands the
attention of all those Interests and concerned in the preserva-
tion of our cultural achieveeonts of the past. As we all know it
is ons of the clsaalc styles left to us by Vllsyansgars genera-
tion. It Is a lone and wide street io front of the famous Vlru-
paksha tecnple, flanked on either side by colen.'Sded running
pavilllons (thniapas). At places they are even storied. All these
are built of stone as] in the typical ViiayaaigarB style of
architecture. A ear-stre*t of such dimnsions and grandeur ia no
where aeea in wr country. Alas, It la left to its own care, only
to be misused by selfish, uncultured, uneducated exploiters who
have spoiled, des-crated it to eult their coweslences, tastes
and interests. Yet It Is heartentna to see that irelor pert of It
still bears its origins! look. thouRli in ruinous condition. Hence
it is a>t late, even nrw, to take appropriate steps towards
ucewvvtnaL la thia Ahe ecA Vwe

thing to be done Is to declare the whole bazar a protected rrmnu-
ment. Some parts, particularly those at the western end ('»ar the
gopsirs of the tceple) have b^n occxvled by the local people ani
converted them into shops or residences for carrying out their
business with the pilgrims a**] visitors who coro to this place in
large ambers, khlle doing so, th^ have retained, rather utilis-
ed in most of the cases, the original framework of the structure
et the same time making some alterations end additions as per

436

their lecessitlea. As a result sme of them have lost their
orlRinal outlcwk. Eleslcfes ma-iv of thms have been pal^tef^ ii a ba I
taste. It all sorts of shades popular anmast conmerclal people.

It Is leertleas to state that all this Is not tJeslrable when
our aim la to conserve the cultural hefltsA® !■’ It* original form
anrt appearance as far as possible. Tov^arris this jroal, action Is
to be Initiated with priority, as already sufffested above and
declare them as protected national mofiJments. Next step should
be to take appropriate measures to preserve them, as they have
i»t been attended to for centuries e>tcept where they have been
utilise.) by the present occupants, ^ome of them need ur(re»t
repairs. Urauthorlsed occupants slotJld be allowed to stay on
condition that they should never meddle with the etrueture,
particularly the external appearance (front side) towards the
ba7^r. Even the open space In front of their occupied part shoulil
no be utlllse<l for anv other purposes JlKe keepln* cattle, pnats,
other animals, providing thatched shades, canvas shades, pottlnjt
water-tubs, benches, lumber aoterlal abd so on. Even the name
boards those not too prtsnlnent can be allowed twt In consultation
with the Director of the place. Vhere the facade has been altered
by the present occupants. It should be redone to be in conferwity
with the oriel ml one. They must be told to restrict their domes-
tic activities to the Interiors and to the rear side only.

Annther important step to be token here 1 « to provide (siblle
toilets at suitable places for the use of the local residents,
pilerims and visitors. At present this aspect create* horror In
the visitor. Even the areas around the Vlrupaksha temple, some
parts of Kemakuta lilt are nut et>arei) frcoi this pjblle nuisance.
The ancient approacti to Vlrupakash tremple from behlTl the Kada-
lekalu Ganesh temple is simply dlsecrated beyond words. This
should be checked by providing alternative ones a-xt by belnjt
vJeilant over the violations. Thereafter, whole of Hampl Razar
should be maintained in accordance with the principles of Archae-
oloyical Survey of Iniia. If need be, the bazar can be put to use
for habilitating local people but wlthtajt meddllnjr with the orl-
(final appearance of the frontaire. This will mean some hvwan acti-
vity in these bi lldinca thcwieh not in the same decree as In the
Vliavanaeara days.

Currently excavations are in full swine at Hampl sanctioned
as a national scheme. This work has been distributed to different
organisations . Here flcoln in order to have a planned, systematic
arri comprehensive work, there should be only one orjtanisaion,
however magnitude the work may be. At least the Director, the
over-all In charge, should be one and he must be on the spot.
Secondly all the obiecta recovered during the course of the
excavation®, irrespective of the organisation involved are to be
available near the site. The visitor to Hampl site should never
be denied access to them. Therefore, straight front the excavated
field, the obiecta should (KI to & nusevsn located near the site.

437

438

Th« iruaeun already there at Hanpl ahould receive aad take ateps
to put them oa ahow lefnedlately. They ah^xld not keep them la its
store or Kodowa elther< They tfwuld be docmated la all respects
iimedlately and the most latereatinx oaea displayed suitably for
the laformatioa of the pt£>llc. Such steps aot only ensure their
safety, but also their availability to Interested public aa well
as to depariinental persoaael. This way, these movable oblects are
alee to be preserved for poaterlty«

Now, a word about the structures exposed durlax the cmirse
of exeavatleas. Normally these are likely to be n»sleeted la the
loaK course of tlir» which eeaas they would be lost for ever. But
they are alea to be preserved taking all palas. It is true that
preservlag the atructures exposed during excavations la tedious,
expeaslve and a eontinuaua process. Becasuse these are normally
mt so solid atructures; th^ wll be of mil heights; thin lime
plaster layer seen la some cases will be quite weak aad fragile;
the bricks will have no strength and so on. In order to ensure
their proper preservation, only a devoted person should be entru>
sted with this respaoslbllity. He mat be assisted by a team of
patient and skilled workers, (hrer all this, the Director of the
whole prelect should be going round the site constantly and take
adequate and timely steps topreserve them without any lapme of
tlM or negligence la the least degree.

In addition to all, there should be cooperation from the
pwblte too, particularly of the san« locality, nearby town for
towns and the local governnent. The enlightened people of this
locality ahould volunteer to assist authoritiea in the preserva-
tion of oko- cultural heritage. They nust get actively associated
and involved. In order to enlist such cooperation, to creat
awaraness, to encourage Iwolvement, an advisory ccrmdttee should
be formed which ahould meet perlodlcaly and adWce the concerned
authorities approp r iately and without any bias or persoml consi-
derations. This la how that all of us can render due service to
the martclnd by preaervinK the cultural heritage.

HERITAGE COMSERVATION OF NATURAL PROTECTED AREA;
A CASE STUDY OF LAHUL AND SPITI

R- B3«3 and R. Sin^h*

INTRODUCTION

ANTHROPOS, Man. had deirelooed Ms own arthroparea. depending
upon the basic needs, and laboured utJon the surrounding envlron-
nent for Ms survival first. Later his behaviour tilted towards
mass eiploltatlon of the natural resources of the biosphere.

In the present age human activities esert enormous influence
on the natural conditions of the entire planet. Changes In the
flora and fauna of land areas are particularly pronounced. Many
types of animals have been completely destroyed by man and still
a greater nuirber of species are threatened with extinction. Plant
covers have experienced eoorrous chances ever a laroc part of the
surface of various continents. Man t influence has also affected
the process of soil formation in the corresponding regions and
has led to changes In the physical and cheftiical properties of the
soil.

It Is seen that even though the activities of modem ran
have altered the natural environment of our planet, these changes
usually represent a sum total of local influences on the environ*
mental process. It is not as a result of changes by nan of global
natural processes that they acoulre a global character, but
rather because local or regional influences are disseminated over
large areas.

Therefore, we have selected a 5«all area in the Himalayas
protected naturally by natural barriers and State Government
through protection of forests, viz. lehul and Spltl District of
Hlnachal Pradesh, to study and evaluate the heritage of the area
which is still not that badly explored by ran and where his
diabolic behaviour has rot yet altered the natural envlrorr^nt to
a point of no return. But still with the advancejnent and the
Invasion of urban behaviour along with the advancement had been
rendered by the State Govemnent or any ether scientific Instltu*
tlcn to fulfil the basic needs of life during the adverse cllrtlc
period which e^races for major part of the year.

The present study deals with Intensive survey of the hilly
area keeping In view Its ^evloos heritage and the present life
patterns along with the corrservatlwal steps taken by the hilly
people themselves which help them in restoring their fast losing
heritage plus the envlrorrental degradation.

‘Dept of BioscJtrcea, Pradesh Vnirersltg, Shiala, inSia

440

PHYSICAL FIATRURES

The Lehul and Spltf district with an area of 13.668 sq.kn
lies between 30* «1 N and 32* 59* 57“ N latitudes and between
76* 46 29“ and 78* 41 • 34“ E longitudes. It corprlses nalnly of
two valleys. Lahul and Spitl. which differ from each other In
their physical features. SpitI valley 1$ broad, enchanting and
corpletely njoged without any verdure worth the na*e whereas
Lahul Valley is narrow and too steep studded with oreen patches
of poplar, willow and conifers.

The naln a-ongst the nu-erous rivers In Lahul being Chandra
river originating fron Lake Chandra near Baralacha la extending
upto Tindi. and the river Bhaga originating fror* Lake Suraj below
Baralacha la and joining river Chandra at Tlndl. Beyond Tlndl
both the rivers awlga-ate into Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab
river. In the Spltl valley, the river Splti originates frcr the
heights of kunsus la and swallows on Its way nunerous rivulets
and rivers like Pin. Llngtl. Girto end Parechu rivers. Closely
associated with the high elevation and snowy rountaln ranges are
the glaciers and Ice caves, the faaous being Bara Shlgrl (one of
the larcest in the world). Chotta Shigri, Gangstang. Sonapani and
Pered glaciers.

GEOLOGY

In the late Pre-ca'Srlan period (rore than 600 Billiton years
ago)) when the area of Lahul end Spit) was a vast sea. sedimenta-
tion started and different lithological units were deposited
under different deposltlonal envlronnents. The area raised by the
mountain building activity were subjected to eresionai activity
which gave the present day landscape. Thus the geology of this
area is culte corpllcated. This phem^non has rade Spltl Valley
fatus for Its fossil hunting ground in the world. The general
classification of the rock structure based on lithology, degree
of netanorphlsa and superposition is as under;

1. Triassic: Pink, dolonitic lloestone with dark fosslliferous
bands and sone purple shales, e.g. certain areas In Splti.

2. Pemo-carboniferous: Kassive grey llrestone, carboniferous
and green shales, slaty Ileiestone and sandstones with guartzltlc
veins, e.g. area near Batal and Kunzien la.

3. Upper Silurian: States, sandstones. Itcestone end shales,
e.g. Baralacha la senes

4. Hid-SIIurlan: Hlea-Schlst within llnestone bands, quartz-
ites. calc-granulltes, e.g. Keylong and Darcha series.

8. Lower Silurian; Gametlferous Schists, ferruglneous quartz-
ites with plenty of quartz veins, e.g. Slssu series.

6. General Gneiss: Gamite. gneiss with associated metanorphlcs
e.g. Rohtang and Tispa ranges.

441

LAND FORMATION AKO VEGETATIONAL INVASION

It appears that after the Ice age (20,000 years ago) v(hen
snow line started receding, the valley was subjected to water
action which led to the deposition of large stones In the gently
sloping valley. The alluvial deposits went on raising till the
glaciers recession and the tributaries originated from them made
it possible to bring down large detrltal masses to spread and
partly cover alluvial flats In the river valley. Elsewhere slopes
and detrltal masses began to be formed at the foot of the cliffs.

In the process of recession of glaciers, the vegetation
advanced upwards and by retarding the flow of water from melting
snows made possible for smaller particles to deposit on hill
slopes, which gave birth to fertile productive land 5tabill7ed on
steep slopes extending right upto the glaciers (16,000 ft.).

With the gradual change in climate and soil, there was
succession In vegetation, which brought In herbs, shrubs and
latter trees to the area. The Invasion of forests was also acccfli-
panied by nicrofouna. Insects, birds, beasts and later or man.

CLlMAie

Generally climate comprises of light, temperature and water
(precipitation) which are ecologically Important environmental
factors on land. Climate on land can be classified into different
types based largely on Quantitative measures of temperature end
moisture by bating Into consideration the effectiveness of precl*
pltatlon and temperature and seasonal distribution as well as the
mean value of tight, tencerature and water (Thomthwaite 1948).

In a broader sense, the climate of lahul and Spltl can be
categorised into a seasons. The spring comences in middle of
April and the autumn in mid-September to early October. Water
along the springs, streams and river beds get frozen during the
winter and heavy snow fall Is received throughout the winter
season which lowers the mercury to even -40”C In some cases.
However, a temperature of -20*C Is normally observed. During the
summer, strong winds lash the entire area causing excessive dust
stonns. The climate In general Is dry and cold but still healthy
for living.

ERISTICS

The linguistic Studies of the area Indicate that- it was
Invaded by an aboriginal tribe who In language as well as stock
were analogues to the Munda tribe of Bengal and Central India In
about 2DOO B.C.

Later, the area was Invaded by Tibetans upto river Chandra
through Sptti and by the Aryans and semi-Aryans from the West and
South of Lahul through different stocks which settled there.

442

It Is noted that from 6th to the early 19th Century the area
was a battle-field for the Kings of Kulu. Chamba, Ladakh, Tibet
and later also the Sikhs. During the British period Moravian
Mission was set up in mid>t9th Century. Some Missionaries did a
valuable historical and archaeological work there. Thus, valleys
of Lahul and Splti had set up their own anthroparea by borrowing
social norms and living behaviour from neighbours and Invaders.
The fact being confirmed by the features of the Lahulls even
today which depict a combination of Mongolian and Aryan traits
and the Spltlans depict purely mangolold race.

A CASE STUDY OF EKISTIC ELEMENTS

A case study is a way of organising social data so as to
preserve the unitary character of the social object under study.
Expressed somewhat differently, it is also an approach which
views any social unit as a whole.

According to Ooxladls (1977), eklstlcs comprise of five
elements which compose human settlements: Nature, Anthropos.
Society, Shells and Networks. Thus the case study of Lahul and
Splti is delimited as per the definitions and the eklstlc is
covered separately under different element heads.

Nature

The term Nature here refers to Indicate the natural environ-
ment of anthropos. man, before he starts to remodel it by culti-
vation or construction. It can be presumed without doubt, that
when nan invaded this area, he was not of a barbaric nature, but
had a gregarious behaviour in the form of a tribe or a clan end
it also rules out the fact that he was not familiar with the
basic principles of building shelter and cultivation. Thus small
settlements came into existence from the very start.

The nature around him was rich In natural wealth with abun-
dent of wood (for building and fuel) and water (for drinking and
Irrigation) which not only provided shelter but also fulfilled
his basic needs for survival.

Anthropos

It stands for an individual with his own characteristic and
problems as dlstlct from society. Anthropos round about 600 B.C.
would have invaded the area due to certain characteristic prob-
lems or problems of the clan or tribe, which can be as the
instinct of invading nature for better lands or the fear from the
neighbourhood that forced him to seek shelter In the vegetation-
studded area under the high ice.

with the f^nd language of the pre-Aryan tines although the voca-
bulary is borrowed directly from Tibetan language. In Spltl
valley pure Tibetan is spoken as It had a direct link with Tibet.

Occupation' The people In both valleys are short, sturdy and
very hard working due to the ethonographlc cross breeding. Before
the beginning of trodem corninlcation system, male folks spent
their time plying rules and the women folk jranaged every work
right from cooking to agricultural fields. But now, with the
trodem transport system, men are seen doing trade outside the
area and women still work In the fields for plantation of cash
crops as seed potato, kuth and hoops (trainly). The cash crops
have revolutionised the economy of the Lahul valley to a great
extent with the result the education system has boosted up. Many
peoplb today hold high posts even In different fields of adminis-
tration, medicine, engineering and education.

Shells

Shells include all types of stivctures, used by anthropos
for living in or for the accotmodatlon of animals, machinery.
prxxJuce manufacturing etc., the structure within which and by
which mankind lives and carries out his different functions.

Thus, the anthropos tn a society marks the most cornpHcated
part of the study. This Includes various aspects and sc*re of then
are major and (crportant which are directly related to the needs
of survival of anthropos.

House‘_ Host of the houses In these valleys are built from the
TocHTy available materials only. The houses made of wooden logs,
stones and mud are spacious, with 3 to a storeys. The houses are
of strong and thick walls with small windows and doors and flat
roofs of cud. The ground floor Is reserved for the livestock and
stores. First floor comprises mainly of the sitting plus the
kitchen with a tsndoor (cooking cum heating appliance) In the
middle of a spacious room. Other rooms ere occupied by the diffe-
rent family meffbers as their own personal rooms, although there
is no restriction for the family members to move from one room to
another. Each house has Its own latrine which Is double storeyed.
The ground storey serves as a store for human waste which Is
utilized as a fertilizer. At present In new constructions the
same pattern Is followed but cwd is replaced to a certain extent
by cement.

Agriculture; Agriculture in Lahul and Spltl district is the main
occupation of the overwhelming owber of households. Previously
many forests were cut down In the vicinity of the villages for
the purpose of agriculture (which Is now banned both by the
people themselves and the State Government), and the agricultural

445

products were of less economic use such as Parley, buckwheat and
sotne pulses like peas, ctl seeds and kuth etc. At present with
the opening of modern transportation system through roads, the
agricultural habits have been altered and main emphasis now,
especially In the Lahul valley, is given to the production of
cash crops such as seed potato (disease free variety), hoops
(recently Introduced) and kuth. Horticulture Includes orchards
mainly comprising of apple plantatlms in the lower bit rocky
soils of the valley.

Live Stock: Primarily the tahulis lead an agro-comrerclal life
a^SpTtfans a predominantly agro-pastoral, with livestock popu-
lation outnumbering even the human population. Hay it be the
valley of lahul or Spltl, livestock was and will be a basic need
of the people. It comprises mainly of cattle (both local and
Jarsee), sheep, goat and hen. The livestock, not only provides
the non-vegetarian food, but also aillk. butter, woolen clothing
and also assist in agriculture. The local cattle when crossed
with wild Yak. produces an offspring named chlrru which provides
high yielding milk. The chirm is small, strong with thick wool
and hair growth, and Is doriesttcable, mainly used for ploughing
and cross breeding. An interesting phenonenon results If chlrru
Is further bred with local cow, the offspring upto the fourth
generation are donestlcable whereas further offspring turns or
rather aegulres more of wild characters and has a tendency of
returning back tc Its native place- the forests.

Fuel: Fuel reculrements of these areas is trenerdous, as the
tandoor is kept hot throughout the ?4 hours. Previously fuel was
brought mainly from the forests, which had an adverse effect on
forestry. But now plantations or willows (social forestry) by the
village people and the individual families, have reduced the
pressure of Illicit felling to nil. Another way of producing fuel
by making cow-dtrg cakes too has come Into practice. The import
of sheep and goat dung to Spltl Is a unique phenomenon which not
only Is used In the tandoor but also In the fields as a fertili-
zer. The willow trees are cut from the too at a heloht of 10 to
15 feet and the twigs kept in store for drying. Here the bark is
utVi^zed the sheep and goats and the renaming wood used as
fuel .

Water: Hater for household and drinking purpose is fetched from
a tap fed by spring water, for irrigation purpose wate” is diver-
ted frtjn the spring or a small glacier rivulet and distributed to
all the fields of village without any priority in a well coopera-
tive manner.

Forestry The excessive felling of trees in the past has affec-
ted rorests to a great extent, which has not only resulted In

446

excessive erosion but also have Increased the efficiency of
avalanches. Now the people have realised the danger and are
trying to counter the same through social forestry. Thus In every
growing season, large number of new plantations near the villages
and the foot-hills ere coming op. The main plantation by the
local people under social forestry programme of willow, spruce
end pine varieties. If any person Is seen fetching firewood frcm
these areas, a fine is imposed by the villagers themselves.

The State Government has also Introduced a desert develop-
ment prograirrne for the development of these regions. The major
species growing In both the valleys are: junipers, poplars, blue-
pine, willows, birch, spruce and walnut trees. Conmon plants are
roses, end species of Junlpenjs, Artemisia, Ephedra. Gatae^s,
Viburnum, Fraxlnus, Berberls.” Pfimos, bpiraea, Looicera, Myrlca-
rla. Hemerocauis. iris, Afieggnie7TafHjhcuius7Taitha.~P5rentiiia7

?rEFaT?Ta. Peflicui'arl^'etc.

Grazing: All protected forests are open to qrazlnq rights unless
Closed by order of the State Government. The bare slopes support
excellent grazing grounds during the sirnner but during winter
(nearly 6 months) all the pasture land is under snow and the
cattle have to be stall-fed.

A great many gaddlet from Kulu and other shepherds migrate
to Lahul and Spltl during the summer season In the upper part of
the main valleys, which are uninhabited and to grounds high above
the villages In the inhabited reglMis. In all, there are 91 runs
where gaddl grazing is done.

Wild Ufe? Wildlife, mainly of migratory type Is very Important
Tor~ the pMpIe, as most of the animals are seen descending to
lower altitudes during the winter months. The hierblvores like Yak
and wild sheep are seen going from one place to another searching
vainly for food, turning up snow with their horns and eating
nearly anything that they can find including rennants of old
straw, grass roots, tree barks and even rage. Similarly carni-
vores like snow leopard descend down and hunt upon herbivores and
even the domestic livestock. Humans Indulge in hunting of wild
goats and snow cocks for meat. During winters wild Yak is also
captured and kept for cross breeding.

Industry: There Is no heavy Industry In both the valleys. The
only industry Is that for drying the hoops, situated near TIndl.
It comprises of a drying room end a hydraulic press. This Is
used by growers during September and October for drying of hoops
to Increase the commercial value of the produce.

Networks

The term network here Indicates the man-made systems which

447

facilitate the functioning of settlwnents such as roads, water
supply and other lines as electricity, telecormunications, etc.
ire importncB and major network systeos are-

Roads The area of Lahul and Spiti have only two main roads and
nearly BOX of these is motorable but with very little mettled
part. One road runs from Manalt and ends at the foot hills of
Baralacha la, with an offshoot from Iindt to Udaipur. The only
road for Spiti is from Gramphoo, which traverses through major
part of Spiti from east to west and ends up in Kinnaur district.
Most of the villages are connected to the main road through mule
tracks and the (taterials may it be of household need or agricul-
tural produce, are transported on mules to and fro. In winter
emergencies are covered through chopper service run by State
government on subsidised rates for headquarters Keylong and Kaza.

Water Supply Practically, there is no work done on water supply
svst^ except that the spring and rivulet waters are directed to
the village by the villagers thesiselves for household and agri-
cultural needs.

Electricity Major villages lying on the roadside upto Keylong
are electrified. Small themo-generators are set up at many
places which do not supply sufficient power.

Erosion

At present the soils in this area are very inadequately
protected by vegetation, but when given protection, grass and
herbs on the upper slopes and trees on the lower slopes cone up
in due course. The result today Is that the steep and extensive
slopes in the area are eroding fast with throwing snows and
avalanches In winters. Curing early swrer to autumn wind erosion
IS causing havoc in the area. Water erosion is gathering mocnentun
day by day. It was observed that major part of the alluvial
flats, detrltal fans and slopes have already been washed away,
and the Lahul valley at present contains vestiges of the alluvial
soils are washed away. It Is no exaggeration but shame on the
name of humanity to say that detrltal masses which make life
possible there are on the move. The way the rushing waters are
cutting into them and the enormous quantities that move down to
the rivers have to ^ seen to be believed. There Is enormous
effect of erosion rear the settlements and the grazing sites due
tb excessive grazing from early spring to late autumn. It is
observed that the cembired octfon of snow, avalanche, water and
wind has all the effects like deflation, attrition and abrasion
throughout the area and has resulted in the Invasion of deserts.
The diabolic characteristics of desertification are projected
through the formations of nushroom growths, zeugen, yardang and

44g

drelkantisation of the soil afwJ land.

Ethnobotany

With the development of anthroparea, anthropos developed its
own techniques of curing diseases, clothing, food and other
things. The local doctor (vaidh) has his ow medicines prepared
totally from local herbs, shrubs and other things which ere very
effective In curing both conroo and cotnpllcated diseases. The
problem arises that the technique Is passed on to only one In the
next generation through practice and orally. Woolen clothings ere
made from the pure wool of goat, sheep and Yak, spun at home
through traditional means only. Although now facto’^y made gar-
ments and wool are also used, but to a limited extent only as
these are not warm enough. Locally hand made shoes (^llee) from
the hemp of bhang and local leather are still In use as these are
more comfortable and also do not slip on snow and ice. The local
brew is from barley and rice with the help of a yeast produced
locally by only a few people who do not transfer the technique to
any other person until death. Other seeds of wild grasses and
herbs are also consumed to a limited extent. Some of the other
important wild collections are of precious stones, karu, polish,
lira and other forest produce.

HERITAGE CONSERVATION

As the study Indicates, the district of Lahul and Spltl
supports a fragile ecosystem which is tilting mere towards deser-
tification assisted first by man and now by the natural calami-
ties too- The area still supports a rich cultural heritage and
stands as a challenge to the modem man and his scientific deve-
lopment for Its conservation.

The measures for conservation of natural heritage are being
taken up by both local people and the State Government through
various methods. The area Is being explotled by the Inhabitants
at a larger scale. Hence to conserve It, following actions are
necessary before any scientific developcent is carried out In
these valleys:

1. Avalanches Control; Avalanches create havoc In the area. They
should be controlled by triggering small avalenches during the
winter season artificially.

2. Erosion Control: The excessive soil erosion should be control-
led at a faster rate through scientific technology, by preparing
check dams, planting of grasses and shrubs on the higher alti-
tudes and fast growing fodder and timber trees on the lower
altitudes. Badly erroded grasslands and pastures should be closed
till stabilized.

3. Hind, Water and Solar Energy: The area throws with fast flow-

Ing rivers, rivulets and winds. Tfte thenwl, wind and solar
nergy should be tapped at village level through mlnl-hydel pro-
jects, wind mills and solar plates etc., for household and irri-
gation purposes. The historical lakes viz., Chander Tal, Suraj
Tal and Heel Kunth are also facing problenis of degradation.
Measures should be taken to reclaim these.

4. Mineral Exploration' The area covered by both valleys is rich
In irinerais which should be utilized for boosting the econony of
the country. It will also generate employ'nent for the local
people.

5. Agriculture* The modem agricultural techniques for better
cropping should be Introduced through irproved and drought resis-
tant and high yielding varieties for improving the econcnic
status of the people.

6. Fuel ard Fodder; One of the major problesms faced by the local
people is of fuel and fodder during winters which should be
provided by the State Government at subsidised rates. Social
forestry in the area be given top priority.

7. Livestock Improvemenf High sillk and wool yielding livestock
be Introduced by teproveraert of stock through cross breeding of
wild end domestic anlinala.

8. Wool Industry: The local woolens are one of the best in the
country and the wool making process be mechanised for better
marketing In the country.

9. Education: Modem and higher education be imparted to the
society free of cost. This would enable them to undestand their
surroundings. With better education, people rray rove to other
parts of the country for better vocations, which will reduce the
excessive biotic pressure on the land. It will also help In
eradication the exploitation of the weaker sex e.g. polyandry.
The education concerning the planning of village; construction of
cold resistent and hygerlc houses should be Intiarted.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

He are thankful to Prof. H.O. Agrawal, Head, Department of
Bio-Sciences for his help. Thanks are also due to the local
cf V;ese rollers fcr iUvr/r oswenrt/crt wltfioat

the present study would have been realised.

REFERENCES

Ooxitdis, C.A. 1977. Ecology and Eklstlcs. Westvlew Press,
Boulder, Colorado- 91 pages.

Tbomthwalte, C.H. 1948. An approach \ti a rational classifica-
tion of climate. Gecgr, Rev. 38' 5S-94.

HATER POaUTIOfI K0WIT0RIH6 THROUGH REMOTE SENSING

Ravi terasicJan*

INTROOUCTIGH

Vster Is one of the rest lepertcnt nsti/rel resooree of a
country. To obtain the r^yltus osaoe out of a waterbody, we need
to ronltor and sanage the water c-iality,

Penote Sensing Is the science arxl art of obtaining inforra-
tion aboirt an object, process or (5hef>:r>enon throuch analysis of
Cate Obtained by a device that is not In direct contact with It.
A camera Is a very 9 »d exacole of a rerote sensor. In stellites
a scanner Is often e^iloyed as a sensor. The roln difference
between a ca.nera and a scanner Is that, while a canera records an
ntire Jrage at the sane instant, a scanner collects the reflected
cr emitted electro-oagnettc radiations eeanatlng fraa a unit area
(picture elenent cr pixel ) at any instant and scans the
object pixel by pixel, thus asse^lfcng the entire loage.

It ray be surprising to note that re^te sensing is quite
an old science. The earliest use of re^te sensing dates to 1B59
«r*en a canera flcwn on a balloon was used to take plcutres.
Ke^te sensing through satellites is however a recent ailvBnc«"ent
in technology. Kencte sensing has been widely used for crop yield
estlMtlon, acreage estiratlcn, rinerl exploration, aeoltering of
Itrberlng eoeraticns etc. The area of envlrtjonentai pollution was
ignored fer euite scnetire, perhaps because It seered preposte-
rous that water cuality para-eters norraily evaluated through
tine consiElng labcratcry analysis could be deterring by photo-
graphing 3 waterbod. AiTcthcr possible reason for the neglect Is
that the sensers aboard the first few high resolution envlromen-
tal renote sensing satellites (the LA.VDSAT series) were designed
crlrarlly to obtain InforcaiJon abewt the land cover. Recently a
rarber of research workers have been studying the possibility of
using satellite Ireoery to delect end reasure pollution In water
bodies (Kmday et al. 1979 and Phllpot and Kle^^s 1979).

Advantage of Renote Sensif^

Resote Sensing is net sitpiy a fancy way of gathering Irfor-
ratlon. It overccnes several drawbacks of conventional rethods.

1. It icproves our ability to inventory and hence, canage the
earth s cS<indUng natural resources. In order for a global inven-

►Xsian Inrtitute of Technology, BMgkek, Thailand

tory of resources to be of value, It should be made In a suffi-
ciently short tiffie to ensure global carpatibility. Remote Sensing
through satellites is ore means of achieving this.

2. Rerote Sensing can beused to ronltor changes in our deteriora-
ting environment. Because of the repetitive coverage of the same
area by sun synchronous satellites (for LAMlSAT-every 18 days),
the satellites lend themselves to effective monitoring of the re-
sources especially where the resources span across international
borders.

3. A synoptic overview is provided by remote sensing. An observer
on a ship is limited in what he can see about the surrounding
areas. A satellite Image increases the overver s field of riew to
hundreds of kilometers.

4. Satellite images provide an instantaneous record at a particu-
lar point m time. Ihls Is particularly useful in the study of
dynamic processes.

5. Rerote Sensing is inexpensive. Once a viable relationship has
been established between the renotely sensed data and the surface
truth. It is much cheaper to acauire information from rcinote
sensing as opposed to the alternative of expensive and time
consuming field sampling leans and ships, especially when conduc-
ting seasonal or long term investigations.

APPLiCATIOIfS

Water parmeters that affect the energy levels detected by a
casera or scanner are color, turbidity, ter^rature, roughness of
the surface, flourescence and iimlnescence.

The surfee lemperture of a water body may be detemined from
emitted radiances in the Thermal IR or KIcroweve regions of the
spectriOT. Polcyn (1972) used irultl-spectral scanner data to study
the thermal plumes caused by power plant effluents. Without
atmospheric corrections teroeralure differences of I* C ray be
detected and absolute values determined within 2-3* C. With
atmospheric correction absolute terperture values nay be deter-
mined to within 1* C. Because sensing is through the e-n radia-
tion emitted from the surface, investigations can proceed even at
night.

Suspended sedinents affect the qppera.1 af wa-tac hit-
cause of their scattering and absorptive properties. Hence. Hence
they also change the optical depth and the colour of the water
colimn. An increase in turbidity increases the energy flux reach-
ing a sensor, because more solar energy is reflected (or back
scatterd) by the particles producing turbidity. Robinson and
Snsaenthong (1981) observed that landsat Band 5 (Mjltispectral
scanner) reflectance values were highly correlated with suspended
sediment load. They used a linear relationship to predict the
sedtinent concertratiwi frem these reflectance values.

4S2

Chlorophyll-a Is an Important aquatic parameter that has
significance for wter quality and also serves as an Index for
basic biological productivity. Either abcwnwlly high or low
concentrations Indicate pollutant inputs. T*ro approaches are
currently being employed for the deterrlnatlon of chlorophyll by
re-note sensing.

a. Analysis of back scattered light In
chlorophyll absorption bands*

It has been found that there Is a decrease in reflectance at
460 nm and an increase in reflectance at 540 rvn with Increasing
chlorophyll concentration (Thomas ct al. 1978). By obtaining the
ratio of reflectances at the above two wavelengths, chlorophyll
concentrations have been successfully neasured (Harlan et al.,
1975). LANDSAT is not very suitable for chlorophyll detemlnatlon
because of the broad wavelength bands of Its sensor. However, a
sensor specially designed for detecting chlorophyll-a (Coastal
Zone Color scanner-CZCS) has been rounted on NIHBUS-7 (a meteoro-
logical satellite). Cracknell et al. (1980) found good agreement
between the surface measurements for chlorophyll-a and the esti-
mations through CZCS for concentrations ranging from 0.12 to 6.3
mg/cu.ifl.

b. Chlorophyll Cetera (nation Through Flourescence Heasurements

The fluorosensor consists of a laser transmitter end recei-
ver that is (wunted aboard an aircraft. The laser sequentially
transmits short-duratlcn, hlgh-Intenslty pulses of light at 454
ran* 539 m. S98 nm, and 617 rw which In turn excites the chloro-
phyll In the algae to emit pulses of red fluorescent light. The
returning fluorescence is measured at 685 nm and analysed to
yield a correlation to the chlorophyll concentration.

Oil Is one of the coerron^st pollutants of the sea. Remote
Sensing Is particularly useful for monitoring laeks from off-
shore drilling platforms and illegal tank washing along tanker s
routes because oil remains on the surface for a long time. It 1$
also extensively used to detect and direct the control of oil
spillage. Oeutsch et al. (1980) repot the use of Landsat data to
track and predict the enovement of an oil spill following the
explosion of IXTOC-l oil well in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979.

A variety of sensors have been used for the detection and
prediction of the quantity of oil contained in an oil slick. In
the visible region blue and near ultra violet bands are excellent
for imaging the edges of oil slicks and determining their extent,
■pjfvmt** *i9s 'bwrij'a vre 'ivt 'iTie Vi/i-dicness -ot -Vne
slick at various points, in the realm of active microwave remote
sensing radar is quite effective In detecting oil slicks. Oil
smooths surface capillary waves and reduces radar backscatter

453

which Is a function of surface roughness. thickness aeterm-
nation is crude and dependent on sea state. But one main advan-
tage of radar Is that it provides all ineatret’, day/night opera-
tion unaffected by clouds (Ulaby et al. 1961).

Often substances which are considered too difficult or un-
economical to treat are disposed off in thd ocean. Typical exam-
ples are sewage sludge acid wastes and other similar chemicals
and Industrial waste products. These ofteP possess unlous spec-
tral characteristics and in soire circumstances, due to their
method of disposal, distinct spatial patterns also. LANDSAT sen-
sors are often particularly useful in deteiTaining the effects of
dispersion and diffusion on waste plumes.

The discrimination between various cd*^onents contributing
to the radiance Is made possible by the spectral separability of
pollutants and their brightness differences from clear water.
Eigen vector analysis is a classical way of discriminating pollu-
tants (PMlpoi and Klemas 1979). Industrial wastewaters like pulp
and paper effluent discharges, can be spotted using a Fraun-
Hopper line discriminator. The dlscrlnlnator picks up the luimne-
scent or fluorescent constituents like llgoih to detect dischar-
ges (Hatsonetal. 1975). Pollutants can 4l5o be identified by
sensing in the Thermal IR. Clean water has a typical emission
pattern in the Thermal IR which closely follows black body radia-
tion at that temperature. By performing a mul tl soectral analysis
In the Thermal IR region and plotting the deviation from the
normal, the pollutants can be detected.

CASE STUDY

Songkhla lake is one of the largest in Asia covering an area
of about IQOO sq. km. tt Is located at lOO* 15 E and 7® 20 N.
It is connected by a narrow channel to the 6ulf of Thailand. The
upper reaches of the lake are fresh and the water Is used for
Irrigation. Farming, fishing and charcoal making are the three
main occupations of the people living in the area.

LANDSAT Images of Karch 1976, Hay 1982, Sept. 1982, and Nov.
1982 covering the lake area were used for the purposes of this
study. The problem with using Landsat data especially. Inthe
tropical regions is that, many of the Images are rendered useless
by cloud cover. These particular images were chosen because of
the minimal amount of cloud cover in them and the availability of
coincidental water quality data for these dales. The software
package used for digital data analysis was OIHAps ar operating on
an IBM 2083 computer.

Reflectance values in Bands 4. $, 6 and 7 were obtained at
selected places on the lake. These values wore then correlated to
the water quality data at those places. It was found that Band 5
reflectance vlues correlated well with turbidity (r= 0.825). At

454

higher values of turbidity (about 50 NTU) an exponential equation
fitted the data better. Further, water quality panneters were
correlated amongst themselves. There appeared to be no relation
between turbidity and total PO content of the water.

The poor correlation between turbidity and total PO Indi-
cate that the suspended particles causing turbidity are mainly
Inorganic In nature and not algal matter. In such a case, a study
of the sediment load of the lake might give a good estimate of
the erosion of the soil In the drainage basin of the lake. It has
been hypothesised that clear cutting of forests for making char-
coal has adversely affected the quality of the lake water. It is
proposed to study the Impact of such changes In the land use
pattern in the catchment area to water quality of the lake.

LIMITATIONS

Remote sensing Is not a cure-all end suffers from several
serious defects,

1. A number of water quality parameters which do not affect the
optical properties of the water column still must be analy<ed by
standard methods.

2 . Investigations for the water quality are. with few exceptions,
valid only for the top few metres.

3. In the measurement of suspended solids, calibration of reflec-
tance values is based only on the intensity of light scattered by
the suspended sediments present In the water column. Scattering
becomes more and more predominant as particle size decreases. So
the same value of radiance measured In the imagery could be due
to a few mg/l of fine silt or a few g/1 of coarse sand.

4. Resolution of satellite Imagery Is usually too poor for iden-
tifying effluent discharges or ocean dumping, unless It is on a
large scale. LANDSAT has a resolution of 79 m in the visible
regions. Thermal IR Imagery usually has a resolution of only
about one km. This problem will be alleviated to a great extent
when imageries of LANOST-D Thematic Mapper, with a resolution of
30 m, and SPOT data with a resolution of 10 iti become available.

5. Though any one point on earth is covered by LANDSAT once every
18 days, a Urge number of these Images arc not usable because
they are obscured by clouds.

6. It Is essential to note that even when remote sensing Is used,
one cannot completely do away with proximal sensing (conventional
analysis^. It is very difficult to quantify the variations In the
radiance values occurring due to solar angle, atmospheric condi-
tions etc. So it becomes necessary to collect ground data from a
few sampling points to check, correlate, and apply corretions to
the satellite Imagery.

In spite of these limitations, we recognize that remote
sensing is a very powerful tool to assess water quality. Remote
Sensing should be used to complenent existing traditional methods

455

so as to improve the efficiency of flionitorinq and managing the
natural resources, rather than as a replacerert of conventional
methods.

SUGGESTIONS

One of the most iTr^ortant problems in applying remote sens*
Ing for water Quality monitoring is the necessity of effectively
relating images obtained on different dates. Varying atmospheric
conditions causes the reflectance values of the same feature to
vary significantly. Continuing research needs to be conducted to
Quantify the atmospheric attenuation for a given set of meteoro-
logicl conditions.

An additional area for research is to obtain an estimate cf
the particle size distribution m the determination of suspended
solids concentration in the water body.

ACmWLEDGEHEHTS

I am thankful to Or. 6.N. Lohani for his suggestions and
encouragement. My sincere gratitude to Dr. H.L. Dryan for his
critical coiwents which have helped me improve this oarer.

REFERENCES

Cracknell. A.P.. Singh. S.H. and Hacfarlane, N. 1980. Remote
Sensing of the North Sea using Landsat*2 MSS and Nimbus*?
CZtS data. Proceedings 14th Internet. Symposium on Renote
Sensing of Environment. ERIM, Ann Arbor.

Deutsch.H, Vollmers, R.R., Deutsch. J.p. 1980. Landsat tracking
of oil slicks from the 1979 Gulf of l■texlco Oil well blowout”
Proceedings 14th International Symposium on Reirote Sensing
of Environment. ERIM. Ann Arbor.

Harlan, J.C., Hill, J.K. and eohn, C. 1975. A biological and
physical ocehoqraohtc remote. sens.lnq stml^ aboard ciiygvi-.
Proceedings 10th International Symposium on Remote Sensing
of Environment. ERIM. Ann Arbor.

Monday, J.C. Alfoldl, T.T. and Amos, C.L. 1979. Bay of Fundy
verification of a system for multldate Landsat measurement
of suspended sediment. Satellite Hydrology. American Water
Resources Association, Minneapolis.

Philpot, W. and Klemas, V. 1970. Remote Sensing of coastal pollu-
tants using oultlspectral data. Satellite Hydrology. Ameri-
can Water Resources Association. Minneapolis.

Polcyn. F.C.. Brown. H.L.. and Stewart, S.R. 1972. Multispectral
survey of power plant effluents In lake Michigan. Proceed-
ings 8th International Symposiiw on Remote Sensing of Envi-
ronment. ERIM. Ann Arbor.

456

Robinson, I.S. and Srlsaengthong. 0. 1981. The use of Landset'KSS
to observe sediment distribution and movement In the Solent
coastal area. Proceedings of an EARSeUESA syntposlua, Voss.

Thomas. M.V. Kenmerer, A.J, Hovls. W.A., and Clark, O.K. 1976.
Marine applicator of the Nlmbus-G CZCS. Procedings 12th
International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment.
ERIM, Ann Arbor.

Utaby. F.T. Moore, RK. and fung, A.K. 1981. Microwave Remote
Sensing active and passive. Addlson*Wesley, Reading.

Watson, R.A.. Hemphill, W.R.. and Bigelow. R.C. 1975. Remote
Sensing of luminescing envlr^vnental pollutants using a
Fraunhofer line discriminator. Proceedings iOth internatio-
nal Symposium on Remote Sensli^ of Environment. ERIK, Aral
Arbor.

EXTENT AND SOURCE OF AQUATIC POLLUTION IN THE
BRAHMAPUTRA DRAINAGE OF ASSAM

r.S. radava*

INTRODUCTION

Han's environment includes the air he breathes and the water
he drinks. These are continually polluted by rapid growth of
hunan population, expanding technology and consumption of natural
resources causing serious trr^lances of the envlronjnent. Hater, a
major natural resource with great potential and provision for
supporting human Ufa has been the main target of contamination
posing serious problem, both from the public health and fisheries
point of view. Industrial wastes containing highly toxic, organic
and inorganic substances like acids, alkalies, dye, oil, deter-
gents. compounds of arsenic, chroniun, sulphur, zinc, lead, vana-
dium. hydrocarbon, chlorinated hydrocarbon, cyanides, phenol,
free chlorine, free atmonla. mercaptans. hydrogen sulphide, bio-
cides and even some radioactive materials find their way along
with the discharge of trade wastes and have deleterious effects
on fish and flh food organisms. The extent of pollution in the
majaor River systems and estuaries of India except River Brahma-
putra has beer recognised and thoroughly investigated by many
workers, the prominent being Seth and Bhaskaran (1950), Ganapati
and Chacko (1951), David (1956). Qaslm and Stddlql (1960), George
et al. (1961). Basu (1565), Bhaskaran et al. (1965), Gopalakrish-
nan et al. (1970], Ghosh et al. (1973), Pawar et al. (1979), etc.

The pollution of water In the North-East region although not
yet fully assessed is oolte obvious lately from the different
observations and on scientific assessment. The mighty Brahamputra
after criss-crossing the boundless tracts of the Himalayas enters
Assam near Sadlya town and traverses about 640 Ion through the
state before entering Bangladesh near Dhubrl. The Brahamputra
valley Is bordered on all the three sides by foothhtlls of the
Himalayas, the Patkai ranges and the Heghalaya plateau. A good
number of tributaries fingering from north as well as south of
the Brahmaputra feed the main channel. Notable tributaries from
the North are Subanstri. Bharall. Pagladlya, Chalkhowa. Manas,
Ale, Champamati, Saralbhanga and Sankosh. Of the tributaries
emanating from the South, the io^ortant ones are Noa, Bupl-
dlhing, Oisang, Dlkhov, JhanzI, Dhanstri, Kopili and Digaru. The
river system, besides providing navigational facilities, plays a
vital role in sustaining the variegated life and fauna and flora
of the valley and its surroundings,

•Central inland Fisheries Feseareh Centre, Caiihati fAssaa), India

4S9

Teb!e l. Ranges* of Imoorlaot chemical parameters.

Parameters

G. O.D.

C.0.0.

Total nitrogen as k
P. Alkalinity as CaCOa

H. Alkalinity as CaC 03
Total hardness as CaCO^
Calcium as CaCOj
Magnesium as CaCO^

Sodium

Sulphate

Nitrate i Mtrlte • N
Chloride

Collfom (NPN per 100 ml)
E. coll (HPN per 100 ml)

firatwaputra

Brahmaputra

lauhati (Pandu)

Oibrugarh

7.3-8. 1

6.8-8. 1

1 0. 4-3.4

0.8-a.5

2.4-17.6

1.6-25.6

0.28-11.2

0.24-11.3

48,0-90.0

44.0-230.0

48.0-104.0

46.0-200.0

28.0-61.0

40.0-156.0

18.0-44.0

6.0-30.0

4.0-16.0

t.3-9.0

4.0-21.0

2.0-19.0

mi-0.4

Nil-O.Z

2.0-11.0

4.0-10,0

4$0-M0.00

930-2,40.000

43-15,000

90-46,000

* The ranges are for the period Jan*t)ec. 1582.

Source: Public Analyst, 6ovt. of Assam, Cauhatl

460

Table 2 Effects of Industrial

Important industries and
their location

Indian Oil Corporation,

Gauhatl Refinery
Noonmatl Gauhatl

6onga(9aon Refinery and
Petro-chemicals Complex.
Ohallqaor)

Assam Oil Corporation,

OIgboi

Hindustan fertlllier Corp.
(India] Ltd., Namrup

Assam Petrochemicals Ltd..
Namrup

Assam Co-operative Su^ar
Mills Oer^aon

Ahsok Paper Mills.
Jogiahopa (Nowgong)

Chemical Unit of
Associated industries.
Chandrapur Dlst Kamruo.

Tarn Dye House

Hindustan Paper Corpn
Jagiroad Nowqong

0 N G C Eastern Reolon,
Narira

Otl India Ltd .

Dullaian

Effluents on Fish In Brahmaputra
Reports of major fish kill

Fish has disappeared from
rivulet Bhara lu.

No fish kin

HO fish kill

Besides metallic pollution
Frecuent reports of fish
kill, fish yield has come
down.

Pollution controlled

Fish yield has coine down
In Gelabil river

Dhar Brahmaputra fish Is
reported to cause some
stomach pain.

No fish kill

Tet to be comissloned

Oorlka river fish gives
an oily smell.

Fish kill In JhanJI river

No fish kill

Source Board for Prevention and Control of Pollution. Gauhatl

IS interesting tonote that the OiAb s separator alone from the
refinery of Assam Oil Company, Oigboi, produces a maximum of and
ninimuin of 111 and 16 kl effluents/hr with an average of 20
kl/hr. ^f^e gross pollution by oetroUum Is on increase and the
situation unlikely to chanae due to digging ofmore and more wells
for incrasing oil production from this area (Lonsane et al.
1977).

Pulp and Paper Mills

The region has two large and three smaller paper mills

(a) Hindustan Paper Mills. Oooiohopa,

(b) Ashok Paper Hills. Jaqiroad,

(0) Kamrup Paper Mill. Gauhatt, and

(e) Dhing Paper mill, Ohing.

These factories adopt the sulphate process for manufacture
of pulp and paper. For this purpose the bamboo chips are cooked
in the digester with a mixture of caustic soda, sodium sulphate,
sodium sulphide and steam. The pulp and paper waste is highly
alkaline containlno cellulose fibre, calcium hypochlorite, methyl
mercaptan, free chlorine, lignin and sizing materials such as
resin, soap, alum, starch and silicate, B.O.D. values range
between 490 to 735 mq/l. The Nagaland paper mill discharges Its
effluents into the Tipak nala and then ulttmafely to the river
Brahfliaputra while the other caper mills are directly polutlng the
river SrahmapuCra. Discharge of large quantities of suspended
solids result In high levels of turbidity and excessive- sediment
build-up which may turn the river bed unsuitable as spawning
ground for fishes. The organic pollutants containing non-toxic
materials of high oxygen demand may deplete the oxygen budget of
the water body leading to asphyxiation and death of fish.

Fertilizer Plants

The state has one large Fertilizer Plant at Namip and the
efflunts are discharged Into the OUll river that flows Into the
river Olsang and has been causing destruction of aquatic life and
fishes In this river.

The breakthrough that Is being achieved by the green revolu-

Uoo. cfiiit.il opf. baxe, beso. •s/I

heavy doses of fertlUrers. In Borlaug's worts, "If the high
yielding varieties of crops are vehicles, then the fertilizers
are the fuel to such vehicles, which have revolutionised agricul-
tural production in recent years". Hwever due to indiscriminate
use of nitrate and phosphate fertilizers In plenty, parts of
these salts are not ntUlied by plants and eventually they end up
In our rivers, lakes and estuaries leading to the deterioration

-icustic pnvtronmefit. Thi$ problem may not be that serious
•'i.spntly Oup to httle or neoliolhie use of fertilizers In the
recion vet cannot be ignored due to the increasing stress on
rnh yieioinq varieties end maxicnum use of fertilizers for enhan-
cini ner hectare production.

Other Minor Industries

Various other industries of smaller magnitude viz. Spun silk
Mill. Jagiroad. India Carbon and Assam Carbon, Gauhatl*. Oiomaour
Sugar Mill. Dirrapur, Bokajan cement Factory and Assam Hard Board
Factor. Baruah Bamungaon OisttUary, Jorhat; Oistillaries of
Bhutan, etc., are discharging their imtrested effluents directly
into the river Brahamputra or through its tributa-les. O.D.T., a
common pesticide, used widely in the region to combat nosQuito
menace is acause of concern to water pollution besides the
pesticides and herbicides used In the Tea gardens also enter the
water bodies from the run offs.

Leaving aside the industrial waste problem, the unplanned
dreinage/old sewage plants of the State along with the urban
waste discharge, run off from the rural comrunlty cattle farming,
etc.. Is also becoming the source of the bacteriological load
ultimately to the Brahmaputra systMi.

The water pollution problem in N.€, region and particularly
In the Brahmaputra drainage system is at present very tow to
assume a state of acute crisis, yet it is the hour to exercise
due restraint and checks on the effluent discharge. Should the
water quality be allowed to dewrtorate beyond certain limits,
the situation may go out of control and may adversely affect all
uses water Is put to, throwing the entire ecosystem out of gear
and culminating In a severe biological Imbalance.

ACKNOWLEDGDiENTS

The author Is highly grateful to Dr. A. V. Natarajen, Direc-
tor, Central Inland, Fisheries Research institute, for his keen
Interest in the work. Thanks are also due to the Public Analyst,
Govt, of Assam, and Chalraan. Board of Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution, Assam, for providing valuable data.

REFERENCES

Basu, A.K. 1965. Observations on the probable effects of polllu-
tlon on the primary productivity of the Hooghly and Katlah
estuaries. Hydroblologla 25 (1-2); 302-316.

Bhaskaran,. T.R.,. Chakravorty., RjM... and. TctyedL, R..C. tQj5,S,. SAur
dles on the river pollution.!. Pollution and self purifica-
tion of Gomtl river near Lucknow’ J. Instn Engrs, India 45
(6); 39-50. ^

David, A., 1956. Studies on the pollution of the Bhadra river
fisheries at Bhadravathi (Mysore State) with irdustrlal eff-
luents. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, ??B (3) 1342-60.

Ganapatl, S.V. and Chacko, P.I., 1951. An investigation of the
River Godavari and the effect of paper mills pollution at
Rajahirundry. Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 3 (2-3) 70-74,

George, H.G., Keushik, N.K. and Srivastava, S.K. 1965. Bio-assay
of a DOT factory waste by fishes. Proc. Sym. Water Poll.
Control, Central Public Health Engineering Research Insti-
tute. Nagpur Industrial Haste Treatment, 2 67-68.

Ghosh, B.B., Ray, P. and Gopalaknshnan, V., 1973. Survey and
characterisation of waste waters discharged into the Hooghly
estuary. Jour. Inland Fish. Soc. India, 5 82-101.

Gopalaicrishnan, V., Ray, P. and Ghosh, B.B. 1970. Problem of
estuarine pollution with special refemce to the Hooghly
estuary. Proc Seminar Pollution anfl Human Environment, Bhaba
Atomic Research Centre, Trombay 313-324.

IS 2296-1963. Tolerance limits for Inland surface water subject
to pollution. ISf. New Delhi (1973).

Lonsare, B.K., Barua. P.K.. Singh, H.D. and Baruah, J.N. 1977.
Environmental problems of pollution by petroleum wastes with
reference to North-Eastern India. Proc. Sym. Air Hater Land
Pollut. Ass/Syin.77/T.S.- 5.9 U6-155.

Panwar, R.S., Chandra, K,, Singh, O.M.. Seth, R.N. and Kapoor, D.
1979. Studies on poUutlonal effects of industrial wastes on
Rihard reservoir ecosystem. Proc. Symp, Environ. Biel. 465-
479.

Qasim, S.2., and Slddlqui, ft H. 1960. Preliminary observations on
the River Kali caused by the effluents of Industrial wastes.
Curr. Sci. 29 310-11.

Seth, G.K. and Bhasioran, T.R. 1950. Effects of industrial wastes
disposal on the sanitary condition of the Hooghly rlier in
and around Calcutta. Indian 0. Med. Res. 3B(4) 341.

FUELMOOD FOR RURAL AREAS OF THE LESS DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES

S. Mahammad Hsssan Khandani*

OVERVIEW

The higher prices of oil since 1973 have left many LOCs with
large balance of payment deficits and hloh cost of lirported
petroleum which have resulted In lower economic growth and. In
soire cases have reversed economic dcvclopoent some have had a
decline in food production because of the lack of fuel for Irri-
gation Dumps and petroleum based fertilizers.

This situation has forced the poor in these countries to
increase demand on less costly traditional coeroy sources, espe-
cially wood. Such increased demands have worsened the already
existing environmental oroblcms. such as deforestation, in many
tOCs. In this paper different aspects of wood utilization, as a
major energy source In the rural areas of most LDCs Is discussed.
The role of wood in the enray mix of IDCs. its fuel value and
alternative uses deforestation problem, land use and environmen-
tal protection, and wood plantation as a way of supplying this
fuel for rural areas discussed.

Share of Wood in Energy Mix of LOCs

LOCs with more than «0X of the world s population consume
about lot of the world's cocnmercial energy. On a per capita
basis, cormiercjal eneroy consumption of LOCs is less than 4X of
that in the United States. However. LOCs consume a large amount
of non-coraiercial energy in the form of fuelwood. crop residue,
and animal dung. The ratio of non-commercial to commercial energy
consumption of LOCs Is more than 0.9. On an Individual country
basis, this number is iwjch higher e.q. between 7-9 for India and
4-8 for Ethiopia.

About 40% of the world s wood production Is consumed as fuel
in the developing world, according to the Food and Agriculture
Organization. In some tropical countries like Malawi. Nepal.
Tanzania, and Uganda fuel wood constitutes over got of their
total energy budget and in China which harbors about one third
of the human race, wood is the main energy resource. In rural
areas it is consumed domestically for cooking, heatinc. and
Ughtina. Cooking represents about 50% of the fuel use In many
areas, and perhaps up to BOX in the warmer regions.

465

Furtherrore. ron-cotmerclal energy In LDCs is used with a
very low efficiency of about 5X as conparei] to 20X for commercial
energy. Ibe result of this Inefficiency is an Increaslno shortage
of such fuels in general and fuel wood in particwlar. This short-
age has an ifmediatc impact on the life of a large portion of the
population that lives in villages and rely upon wood as their
primary fuel for cooking and heating.

These figures should be taken as an indicator of the role of
wood as an energy resource, and not as an accurate tally because
very few countries In the developing world have reliable statis-
tics about their non-commercial energy sectors. This might be one
of the reasons behind the fact that most global studies have
failed to address the ouestlon of noncomefclal energy resources.

Fuel Value of Wood and Charcoal Production

The approtimate proportions, by weight, of the main elements
present in wood are' carbon 501. hydrogen 51. ovygen 431. and a
trace of nitrogen. The presence of oxygen in wood lessens Its
value as a fuel. Thus coal (bltuninous). which is almost oxygen
free, has a heating value of about 6.9 kcal/a. whereas air-dried
wood (20-301 moisture content) has a heating value of 3.7 kcal/g
and oven-dried wood averages 4.7 kcal/g. Moisture Is the most
important controiable factor influencing wood efficiency. The
reduction of wood moisture Is necessary for two main reasons: to
reduce Us welont and to increase Us fue) value. Wood is usually
cut three to four months before use in the tropics, and six to
twelve months in the temperate zones, in order to reduce the
moisture contort to about 20 to 301.

In India, for example, annual fuel use with open slow-
burniro fires is about 1.2 to 1.6 million kcal (5 to 7 million
BTU) per capita, whereas in the United States, where family size
is even smaller than in india. the annual per capita use is about
3 Rillion 6Tl for electric stores. Including waste heat at the
power plant. Obviously, the reason for this is the low efficiency
of the stoves used in India. Research to produce inexpensive
efficient cookers would help save some of this wasted energy,
which could then be utilized for ether purposes.

Most charcoal is made from wood, alth^h other materials
like bones and coconut shells can be used to produce charcoal.
Wood is converted Into charcoal by a process of carbonization.
The heating value cf charcoal Is 7.1 kcal/g compared with 3.7
kcal/g for air dried wood. But conversion still results in a
decrease in the total energy yield since all the necessary energy
is provided fren the combustion of part of the wood charge. On
the other hand, charcoal has more desirable properties than wood:
it is smokeless, almost sulfur free, and can be used In stoves
capable of heating the heme as well as adaptable for cooking.
Charcoal Is also used In water purification, an urgwit n^ in

466

many villages of the Third World.

Charcoal may be produced by simple pit methods requiring no
capital. Charcoal s value may be Increased by briquetting, i.e.
powdering the charcoal and nixing it with charcoal fines, wood
and tar or starch to form briquettes. It may be valuable there-
fore in dealing with the transportation problem in the LDCs by
providing good fuel for producer-gas units. Briquetting, however,
is a capital intensive operation: it does not lend itself readily
totherural areas unless small hand operatedhrlquetttng machines
are developed. Charcoal will not be considered, however. In this
paper when wood plantations are under discussion.

Distillation and Other uses of wood

In distillation, wood is heated In a closed container that
permits all gases and liquids to pass out through a condenser.
The non-condensable gases can be utilized as an energys ource,
and the condensed gas and water-soluble tar collected, from
whence they can be decanted and fractionally distilled to give
useful chemical products. Such products Include: gas, methyl
alcohol, acetic acid, acetone, wood oil. light tar and pitch.

Wood distillation (s an age-old practice: It is believed
that the ancient Egyptians recovered tar and pyroligneous acid
from wood and used It to embalm their royal dead. In the United
States and Europe It was used tmtil the products of wood distil-
lation were synthesized less expensively from petrochemicals. It
is clear that wood distillation is not a high priority in the
rural areas because of the technical sophistication it needs. But
It has potential In the long run. The same can be said for
gasification.

Although It Is not the main subject of this paper, a brief
look at the uses of wood other than as an energy resource may be
of some relevance. The list of uses to which wood end its extrac-
tions, can be put is Inpresslve. As a material for Industry wood
is used in the production of pulp and paoer» firewood, particle
board, handles for agricultural Implements and sporting goods,
furniture, pencil slats, and briar wood pipe and match blocks.
Seme of these lend themselves to small scale and labour-intensive
industries. Particle board, furniture and agricultural Implements
are but a few examples.

As noted above, chemical treatment of wood yields a large
variety of products, most Importantlys chArcoal and mettozl or
wood alcohol, which can be used In a number of important Indus-
tries such as steel manufacturing, water purification and tobacco
curing. These uses of wood make it a subject of attention; they
compete, however, with Its use as an energy resource. It Is
necessary, when considering the utilization of wood as a fuel
resource, to study whether a village sight be better off by
putting It to industrial use.

Deforestation

tn the natural forest^ except in tires of eoidemlc losses
due to disease or insects, the mortality losses balance the
accumulation of annual Increments, and the net result of the
dynamic change within the forest is little or no change In total
volume of standing trees. In other words, the natural forest, if
left alone, remains in dynamic eguilibrluin it balances the
energy gains against the energy losses.

This dynamic eoulllbriuni is threatened today ircre than ever
before. Early man considered the forest his habitat andthe situa-
tion in Africa, Asia and Latin America today, show that for many
tribes and peasant cominities the forest represents their chief
source of life, they fell its wood for fuel, graie their animals
there, hurt its fauna for subsistence, and clear it to grow other
food products. But with the growth in pooulatlon and the unplan-
ned use of the forest, deforestation and the spread of the desert
are becoming already a major problem in these continents.

tckholm states that "the spread of the Sahara has probably
been measured most prectselgy in Sudan. There, as elsewhere,
veqetatlonal tones are Shifting southward as result of overgra-
2lrg, woodcutting and accelerated soil erosion". The example of
Khartoum, the capital city of Sudan, is illustrative "dense con-
centrations of the acacia tree were ccwion around the Sudanese
capital of Xhatoum as recently as 195S. but by 19?? the nearest
dense acacia stand stood 90 km south of the city.”

The encroachment of the desert is not limited to Sudan, It
is a major problem In parts of southern Africa. Kenya. Tanzania,
Ethiopia. Brazil. Cniie, Nepal. Thailand, Philippines, and China
among others, in Brazil, desert-like zones are expanding in the
more humid interior protiens of the northeast as a result of
massive destruction of forests by ranching corporations and land-
hungry fanners. In the Coqulabo regtCHi of Chile, the ineouable
land tenure pattern cremates ecologically unsound land use. The
large and sparcely populated estates of the wealthy have room for
proper grazing rotations, while the inadeouate ccnminal personal
holdings of the poor majority are overcrowded. In Banbta in many
sampled villages, the people cooDlolned that wood fuel was more
and more difficult to obtain. CoUecurs have to set off at mid-
day in order to collect and be back for night-fall: where is
previously the woodfuel could be found Just outside the door.
Thus WnTle Tn tne iBiTted states and turepe the cutting of forests
helped development, In the LDCs the forests are lost and little
developnent is achieved.

Wood Plantations

The need for rural developoent. the role that wood plays in
providing energy and raw latertalB for* industry in these areas.

468

and the rapid deforestation, rake It irperative that stecs are
taken to insure that southing be done about the situation. Two
methods are practiced- (1) reflnlno and enrichiront of the natural
forest, and (2) wood olantatlons. These two methods are not
mutually exclusive and they can cotpplement each other, in this
paper, however, we limit the discussion to wood olantations.
particulrly for rural areas.

Planting forest trees It imforested areas or within cut-over
areas m the natural forest has long been a recoonlsed technloue.
A figure of 4 375,000 ha of quick growing plantations in latin
Airerica. Asia Pacific, the hear East and Africa is reported. Fast
growing plantations are defined as those capable of a mean annual
Increment of at least 7 tons per hectare under favourable site
conditions, provided that appropriate technigues are used for
ground preparation and for the establishment, cure, and tending
of the plantations. The definition seems reasonable since^ln the
natural forest. In the absence of Intensive silvicultural treat-
ment. the annual mean incrcrent is less than two tons/ha. Mean
annual increments of more than 55 tons/ha have been reported in
some eucalyptus fuelwood plantations over rotations of 6-6 years
in Africa. A 15 ton/ha/year might be more represenitive In tropi-
cal regions.

The two rain groups of species which are usually recommended
are eucalypts and ccnfiers. Advance have been made In species
choice and testing, and in site selection. Knowledge has also
increased in the field of control of pests and diseases. The
beneficial effects of tending such as weeding, thinning, and
pruning have become better appreciated.

As example of a successful project In India is also presen-
ted. A blast furnace industry with an output of 80 tons of iron
per day. together with a ferro-slllcon plant. Is supplied with
40,000 tons of charcoal per annum from the surrounding forest.
Approximately 3200 to 4000 hectares of lightly exploited, low
value forest Is cleared annually for conversion to plantation.
The forest department which orgnizes and administers the whole
pocess. receives a royalty of $3.75 per ton.

Economics

Various estimates have been given as to the cost of obtain-
ing woodfuel from wood plantations. Relying on Oocnshaw s esti-
mates. Makhijani states that capital cost of establishing village
woodlots (wood plantations) to supply fuel wood-excluding land
costs and the cost of local labour would be about $20/ha. The
money would be spen primarily to provde suitable plant varieties
and to train villagers to operate the plantation: the Investment
would be in local currency. With the cost of labour Included, ithe
costs run up to $200/ha. Each hectare would have an anrrnual yield
Of atiout 25 tons of wood. If the rotation is ten years, and the

46 '?

pncp of the wood is !5/t(50 (SO. 40 nillion Cto). then the
annual output p?r hectare would be worth 175. At a discount rate
of 10J the present worth of all the wood that will be oroduced
fro^ that schc-e is about S3D0, the present worth of the capital
invested in 51?0. assuring that 1200 is invested in eouaJ instal-
nents of i<0 over the first five years.

The cost eslirate for establishing and raintinlnq an euca-
lyptus plantation in Uaanda at 101 discount rate for 5 and 6 year
rotations is 1300 ana $305. respectively, assuring a worker s
wsce of 172 per day. Aartctiltural crops such as groundnuts, grown
between the trees during the first year of the plantation s life
would cut the costs down to Sl2S and USO per hectare for the
se"e rotation periods- These costs have to be corpared of course,
with the costs of alternative sources and the opportunity costs
of using the trees for other Durooses, Certainly these costs arc
ruch lower than those for oil and electricity.

The relatively low costs are obtained by the worker s low
wage, the fast growth rate, and the imlforo nature of the crop.
If wood is to be transported for use in areas far frtri the
plantations, then the traftsportaiion costs rust be added, these
becone rest critical. Since the carriage is charged by weight,
not by voltr«. It beccnes essential that wood be dried before It
is shipped. Mother cost item is storaco* unless fuelwppd is well
dried out. Its ccrraratively low calorific value rjy lead to
abhanr.ally high storage costs. In the case of vtllaoe wxdtots,
tiTisoortatloi end storage costs can be cnjtted.

Land availability and Environrental Protection

land avaiUbllty for wood plantations is an essential reoul-
rerent. Where it is available. It is f^ascnable to cr^lt the land
cost frw the estlT'ates of capital cost. Cut whore both land and
fuel are scarce, the calculaticn bcceres nore difficult. In
Bangladesh, a striking exa-plc of the scrcily of both fuel and
land. It is necessary to increase the productivity of agricultu-
ral land sothat sere of it inav b* allocated for wood lots. In
sone places, like China, w^re there is a reforestation Drogran,
the introduction cf wood lots with a fester and blcoer yield nay,
in the opinion of so'e analysis, release stre land for agricultu-
ral purposes. Wood plantations ray also aid agriculture in other
•ays' Oy' iTreteirfi'iT^ wiHf eirf water sufl* enjston, arra” Cy provi'oT'ng
the wood fuel regulrenents of the rural ccmftles, thus raking
anlnal dong available as fertllljcr.

The reoulred land area will depend on the site of the coto-
nity which It serves, the censtrptlon rate, and the Increment of
the wood plantation. If villages are not sparcely distributed,
they Bight find It rare econonlcal to have a corrunal lot.

The natural forests also provide hlbltst for wildlife which
1$ vital in and of Itself, If they were replaced by plantations

470

this fcrm of life woulfl by threatened. The species cultivted
today are also not necessarily the only ones which will be useful
to humans m the future. Moreover, there is reason to worry that
potentially valuable strains may be eliminated with consequent
loss to the qene bank. These arc inportant considerations that a
country must examine if It undertakes a wood plantation proorarr.
Such issues used to, and arc still, considered by some to be
"externalities", they rust be internalized since future oenera-
tions will have to pay the conseouences. Besides it is iiroosslble
to out a orlce-tag on the extinction of wildlife. If the program
IS limited to village wood lots, however, this would not be a
serious problem.

Administerinq the Woood Plantation

Admnlsterfng the village wood lot requires special care.
There will always be a temptation to cut the trees prematurely
before the stand is established, or to overcut once it is. If
there are poor in the village, they may cut the wood for sale.
The task of administering the woodlot is perhaps a good example
of how the energy issue is linked to other policies. Equitable
distribution of wealth, and education of the villagers as to the
value cf the woodlot for all are essential. Cooperation then can
be anticipated, the villagers tend to be willing to participate
in schemes to estabish woodfucl plantations provided they leam
the basic skills. Policing the woodlot is not an effective method
in the long-term, and in addition. It is a costly operation.

The administration will include, of course, other operjlions
like weedinq. thinning, pruning, fertilizer appUcatTSfiT and
harvesting. All of these are labour-intensive operations and have
to be well timed end organized In order to avoid peak labor
shortages which are common m rural areas.

Protection of the woodlot from pests, diseases and fires are
also necessary. The spread of an eDidemic or the burning of a
woodlot could deal a serious blow to the village energy resource.
This IS. perhaps, one of the bigest problems which must be taken
into account. If the wood lot is damaged there must be provisions
to insure that the affected village continues to receive a fuel
supply.

Social Benefits

Wood plantations are labour-intensive technologies, a chara-
cteristic which makes them suitable for many rural areas where is
a problem of un- and under-employment. The employment, of these
people in useful work must be cosldered an and in itself, it also
generally leads to a healthier life In the whole villaoe, and
slows migration to the already crowded slums of urban centers.
The energy that many people expend now in fetching their wood

471

could he utilized In other forms of useful labour, or in "leisure
tln'o" This of course, is not unique to woodlots. but is an
advantage shared by other cnerqy resource which would relieve
this burden.

Self-reliance, the conservation of Oepletable fuels, and the
creation of a dynamic rural environinent are the final imoortent
considerations.

REFERtNCES

Earl. D.E. 1974. Forest Er>erqy and EconcnJc Develooment Claren-
don Press. Oxford.

Eciiholm. E. and I R.Brown. 1978. Spreadinq Deserts- The Hands of
Han. Bulletin of Atomic Scientists. January.

Logan W E.M. 1565. fast growing tree 50«cies for industrial
plantations ir develootnq countries. Onasylva t9 159*167.
Mathijanl, A 1975 Energy and AancuUure in the Third World.
Ballinoer. Cambridge Ka.

Hakhijani. A, 1976. Enoroy Policy for the Third World. Tnterrat.

Inst, for Environrent t Oeveloixrent. London.

Policy Analysis Division, National Center for Analysis Systems.
1978. Energy heed. Uses and Resources in Dcvelooing Coun-
tries. Brookhaven Nationsl Lab.. Ucton, N.Y.

Reddy. A.K.N. 1963. eullctin of the Atomic Scientists.

U.M. Eneroy Statistics 1950-75 and 1970. United Nations. N.Y.
Westoby. J.C. 1963. The role of forest industries In the attack
on economic underdeveloprent. Wiasylva 16 ' 168-201.

MANAGEMENT AND PROFITABLE USE OF FOREST RESOURCES
OF MORNI HILLS

S.R. Qipta and S.K. Pout*

INTRODUCTION

The forests of MornI Hills represent an ecoloofcally Impor-
tant natural habitat In north-eastern reoion of Haryana. The
forests cover an area of 20M 2 hectares and are comorised of
Plnus roxburohll forest, mixed deciduous forest. Dendrocalarus
sYrTctus"" and Ucrub forest. The forests play a vital roTe Tn
nTlntTifflnq ecological balance in this reqlon of unstable Shlwa-
liks end influence to a large extent the socio-economic condition
of local Dooulatlon The forests are a source of timber, fuelwoed
and charcoal medicinal olants and a number of Industrial raw
materials In view of the oeoloqtcal and ohysical characteristics
Of the terrain, the forest resources are to be ranaaed prcoerlv
for their profitable extraction. This paper discusses the forest
resources of Mornl Hills from the j«5lnt of view of their orotec-
tive role maintenance. Improveitent and maxlffiurri production.

DESCRIPTION Of AREA

Mornl Hills are located In north-eastern reqlon of Anbala
district in Haryana. The area lies between 30* 35* H and 75®
15'E at an elevation ranalnq from 365 m to 1499 m above mean sea
level. Mornl hills are characterised by highly dissected land
topography In the south the hills are ruqqed with deep vertical
cuts fonnifiq ravines at many places, and the hills merge with
outermost Himalayas in the north. The northern part of the area
drains Into Chaggar flowlnq through the tract. The southern part
drains into Tanqn and Karkanda streams which ultimately join
Ghagqar river.

The tract Is hilly and represents tertiary Shlwallk forma-
tion, Underlying rocks are soft sandstone and conglomerates.
Upper strata are composed of sandy loam and hard clay layers. At
roioji twii'.'jftT', occw 1?. Wit

Climate of the area is subtropical and monsoonal. Rainfall
varies from 1000 to 1500 irin per year. A malor portion of rainfall
occurs during July to September from summer monsoons. Some
rainfall also occurs In winter months.

'Botany Department, XuruAabetra tfniversiti/, Kuntkshetra India

FWSST TYPES

The total area cT hills is 24250-53 ha of vhich
205S2.16 ha is forest ei^J vastelerxl end 35B3.37 ha is iniJer cul-
tivation.

The differences in altitude, aspect end other local uy fac-
tors Give rise to fore distinct types of forests, viz..
roiburchii forest. Dendrocalams strictos . rixed deciduous forest
ano Scruo forest, a brief eccwni or various forest tyres is as
follows

Pirrjs rcxburchii Forest

Pir-js rciburchii forest eccursin fcrthem oirt of the tract
and is ccntin^ to cooler ascect. The trees are riddle ac'Kl end
younq poles have subnormal density. Katural reoeneration is oosr
or absent. The areas of poor density are characterized by abun-
dant shrub CTtvth-

Ea*t>oo Forest

The forest Of Dendrccale-cs strictus occurs ever a li-ited
areain east and feuno rixeo wiin species like Aeaeie catechu.
Lar^nea cero“jndeMce and Cassia fistula. Due to extensive exoioi-
t^Tcfi, the forest stands are in oetenoreted ccrdition.

Mixed ObckJuous Forest

The nsceilenecus forest occu*^ in northern cart of the
tract and is ralnly ccrpcsed of Ancceissus latifolia. Acacia
catechu. Batbinia varlecata, CeCreia ioc.n*. t“-5n^a cificiniTTs".
CrfvIF” copcsiiifoiia. tiTrooa ^fr-nafa. Lace^stde'ia Damnc'aT
Lannea ccrcrancenca, Kiuotus cnilicoinensis. ier“iraTia C'eSITe

i^rcinaiia tongnto^. wi^elTe int^ritoiia" ^yoTa c^c i ra .

ha'^itera Inoica”. I^asionaj trees ct ripjs rofturcnii ere also
ref witfi- Irioercrcvth consists cf several ihrubs erd c*‘asses.
Clirters are also cerren.

Scrub Forest

The scrub forest is cnifined rostly in the scuth. DecraCa-

tion is raxlnn in these forests particularly in the foothills

vSere a T^ajer part dr xne'niTls is reduced to ravines on acce*,— t

cf adverse biotic factors. In the interiors, the veceteticn cover
is in iroroved corCltlen. Main species are* Acacia catechu.
Acacia nllctica. Acacia leoccohloea. Dalbercia sTs'seo. Zizvonjs
t^uritiana. Shrubs like Acnatoca vasica. canssa spinarur. Rr-us
parviflcra. Fipharfaia royieena. Lantana ca-ara. Ayctantoes ar^r^
trisLis and Flacourtia inaica ere ce r r en.

Ilumjn Activity Road Corstructlori Aqricullur** Grayin

llrriG Ouarrylno Forestry Onorstlons Mrp

474

Dtarsdstlon of ^oclo*»'ftilofitcal renditions

Forett Mflnftoement for
Rstlonrtl Adlustmeftt Of Mar> i>n<l ResoMrce?

= 11

476

FOREST PR(»UCTS

The rain rarketable forest products include tJrJwr, fuelwood
and charcoal katha resin, jhinoar cui. bhabhar crass, ba“i>oos,
Teminalta chetula fruit and flotfcrs of Viola serpens. Chil
tirber fs extracted to a United extent as feTTTno is strictly
prohibited in chil forests. Fuelwood is sold frcr areas conve-
niently approachable. Fuelwood is converted into charcoal in the
interior areas which are not accessible. Katha is extracted fros
the trees of Acacia catechu when sold fron the tract. Resin is
extracted frcn Pinus roxburohli and the trees ere sold for tap-
ping annually jfu'nqa’n otn is obtained fron Lannea corotrandel ica
trees found rixed in dry deciduous forests. Bhabar grass is
extracted frcm outer Shiwaliks.

KA‘JACE;FtKT OF FOREST RESOURCES

Komi hills with their own peculiar enviroment. social and
econonic problers call for an cnvtrorr^nt oriented plannino. The
irpect of ran s activity on forest resources is suTrarised in
Figure 1 keeping In view various socie ecolooical problems of
the area, the forest resources are to be manaced properly for the
over all development of the area and for jrT>roving the Socio-
econonic condition of local people The forest resources are
ranaged both for protection and utilustion (Kiri et al. 1983).
Protection is a sensible ranagerenl concept for irprovinq veoeta-
tlon cover over badly eroded hills and for achieving rorral
forest growth Fro*i the point of view of utllitation, production
capacity of forests rust he imroved for ensuring progressive
yield of pulpwood katha, resin, ba-boo, bhabar orass, firewood
and timber. Some important features of forest rranagement In Homi
hills are presented in Flo, 2. Various aspects of forest manaoe-
nent are discussed below.

Protection of Forest Resources

Grazing and agriculture are the two rost irrportant occupa-
tions of village population. There has been hanrful effect of
indlscrlininate grazing on forests and natural regeneration of
trees. Trees are extensively looped for grazing during winter and
sunner. The scrub forest is In highly degraded stage due to heavy
biotic pressure, perennial grasses have disappear^ giving place
to weeds like Lantana camara and Euphorbia royleana. Agriculture
has increased the risk ot soil erosion on Tlopes not suited for
growth of crops. A major part of the forest area is characterised
bypoor site conditions. The slopes are steep and fertility status
of the soil vs low. The fires cause deterioration of vegetation
and soil, hamper progresseive ecological succession. Keeping in
view the problem of forest management for protection, following

measures ^ave been suoaested
Control of Grazino

Complete ban on orazino in areas of poor veoetatlcn and
scanty reoeneration and control of grazing In Pinus roxburqhiJ
forest may improve natural reoeneration and establishment of
seedlinos Planting areas of bamboo must be closed for the Impro-
ved growth of bamboo In outer Siwaliks grazing should be stoo-
ped In whole of the areas because the hills are in advanced stage
of erosion Sufficient land should be allotted to provide green
fodder to animals. Sore forest areas should be planted with
fodder trees There should be reduction in cattle number Impro-
vement of their breed and stall feeding as has been suggested by
Gupta (158Qal while discussing potential for increased forest
production in sub montane region of western Himalayas.

Control Of Tree Felling

There should be no felling of trees In scrub forests to
control soil and water erosion and improvement of veoetation
growth. Felling for tiirber and fuelwood in various forests should
be practised keeping in view site conditions, tree maturity and
tree density.

Improvement of Veoetation Cover

There should be extensive planting of economically Important
species tike Acacia catechu. Dalberola sissoo. Acacia nllotica.
Anooeissus latitoHa. 'CedreTa Coona"an3 Grewl'a ODDOsTtTfoiia. 1he
area uTicler fuel ordcfucinTTreeT^ould bFTn c rea s ^ t o mee t the
local demands.

Control of Fire

The forests are to be protected from fires by creating flrellnes.

Maintenance of Forest Resources

For the substained growth of forest, the resources are to be
iraTrfiaTnefl oy deveTopino a'lternatlve sources of employment and
income generation. There is imperative need for developing alter-
native sources of energy also. Sotne tnportant points to achieve
this objective are"

Cultivation of Wild Fruit Trees and Medicinal Plants* The culti-
vation of wild fruits rust be wicouraged for meeting local requi-
rements after assessing their productivity and food value. The
cultivation of medicinal plants can also prove useful. The plants

478

that can be crown for edible fruits 2 nd redlcines are: Aecle
re rrelos. Erblica officinalis. Berberls lyctun, Hangifera IndTcTT
f grus alba. ~ ’la ^arinCus indlea.~5yzyQiu?i~cfeiini and Pyrus pasbia .
Goefa TT^7 I9c0) has listed irportant ^^iclnal pUnt corpo-
nents of Indian forests and also described the nedfcinal olants
of Siwalik hills. The scope of wild fruits In agro-forestry was
discussed by Shan-.a (1533) ertjhasizino their high fruit yield,
adaptation to poor soils and drought conditions resistance to
diseases and oests and Quick growth. The trees of wild fruits can
also produce tlrber of go^ • Quality and foHace of fodder value
(Sharra 1SS3).

Introduction of Horticulture* Horticulture should be Introduced
in areas based on site suitability and relationship between
weather oattem and fruit yield. Fruit trees can better conserve
soil and water ccrpared to acrlculture. Interculture operation In
ecrlculture with fruit olants and off-season vegetable can be
used. This would also provide occupation to local population.

Villace Industries* The existing forest resources can be utili-
zed to prcnote forest based village Industries. Anong srall scale
village Irdustry. poultry faralng. bee-keeotng. spinning and
weaving and charcoal raking can be can be encouraoed. 6upta
(1564 1SB0) has discussed the economic plants for spall-scale
industry and eyrphaslzed Its need for rural Oeveloprent.

Breeding Farr for Wildlife* Esiabllshrent of wild-life breeding
farrs can protect wildlife end create a cuantin of ecolojnent.

Utilization of Fcrest Rescurcs

The ranacfecent clan for the utlllzetfon of forest resources
has been prepared by the forest departrent. The objective of
ranacing the forests for utilization Is to raintaln the supply of
raw wterlals. creation of erploycent and raising the socio-
eccnonic status of local populatlcn. To neet these objectives,
efforts are underway to properly ranace the forest resources.
Different working circles of the forests have been derarcated.
It has been recocrended to prepare volu*^ tables of trees for
fellina end to undertake felling for tlrber ard fuel wood In
prescribed forest corpartnents. For the extraction of resin free
Pinus Toxburchli . jhlnca*: qun fren Lannea cofTr-indglica and pre-
paration of cnarccal. specific rules have been forrulated. The
extraction of resin and cur. Is perrltted fron rature trees with-
out causing any iniury to the trees. Charcoal is prepared only in
interior felled areas of rature crop of trees.

Plantaticns are being raised In clear felled areas and In
areas of poor density. The species used for plafttatiens are:
Pinus roxburehii. Pinus carlfcbea. Pinus petula. Acacia catechu.

Anoaelssus latifolla. Temiralia tomenlosa anti Oendrocalamus
slri'c'iuT.'"

RESEARCH AND M0N1T0RIN5

The manaQement efforts must be backed with a strong coirpo-
nent of research. Baseline data trust be collected on abiotic and
biotic corrponerts of the area, land use practices and the socio-
economic survey regardlno the local population. It is essential
to generate information on climatic variables, soli and vegeta-
tion characteristics, productivity population dynamics, pattern
of human utlllratlon of wild plants for food, fodder, drugs and
construction of shelter.

ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

Local population nust be associated as far as possible with
protection and preservation of forests, and change In landuse
patterns. The key process of managerreot lies In educating the
local population about the value and benefits of forest conserva-
tion. It is reaulred to develop favourable perception and new
attitudes towards conservina the forests by creating a oeneral
awareness among people. The education and training proaranme is
needed both for public and for those oersons who are involved In
management and extraction of forest resources. Broad (19S9) sug-
gested environmental education as an Important aspect of conser-
vation rranagement for solving the vast probleins of biological
resources. For maklna education meaningful, suitable infonrattcn
material must be developed for describing the oeneral feature of
the area, Improved land-use practices, restoration zones, socio-
economic aspects of life of local people through documentary
films, public meetlnos. training camps and setting up of small
museums.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We appreciate suggestions from Dr, V.K. Asthana, Geography
Department, Kurukshetra bnlverslty. Financial assistance from UGC
grant Is gratefully acknowledged.

Broad. S.T. 1969. The education aspects of nature and conserva-
tion, Advmt. Scl. Br. Ass. 26* 91-98.

Gupta. R, 1977. The medicinal plant component of Indian forests.
Indian Fmg. 26- 96-98.

Gupta, R. 1980. Plants In Folk Medicine of the Himalayas, p. 83-
50. In* S.K. Jain (Ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethanobotany.
Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. Calcutta.

480

Gupta. R.K. 1980a. Development problems and potential for Increa*
sed fodder production In the sutimontane regions of Western
Himalayas, p. 134-141, In* T. Singh and J. Kaur (Ed) Studies
In Himalayan Ecology and Develofment Strategy. English Book
Store. New Delhi ,

Gupta. R.K. 1960b. Alternate Strategies for rural development In
Garhwai Himalayas, p. 218-233. In* T. Singh and J. Kaur (Ed)
Studies In Himalayan Ecology and Development Strategy,
Enolish Book Store. New Delhi.

Gupta. R.K. 1964. Economic plants for small-scale industry. J.
Soil i Water Conserv. 12 23-35.

Purl. G.S.. V.M. Meher-Homjt. R.K. Gupta and S. Purl. 1983.
Forest Ecology. Volume 1. Phytogeoqrhy and Forest Conseva-
tion. Oxford and ISH Publishing Co.. New Delhi.

Sharma. R.L, 1983. Scope of wild fruits in agro-forstry. Lecture
delivered at Summer Institute on Aoro-forestry in HP Krlshi
Vlshwavidyataya. Solan.

SHIFTING CULTIVATION; ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

S.N. Patro and B,N. ^hshra*

!rjTROOUCTIOM

■Shiftina inun or Podu Culttvatjon" is an aqricultural
practice prevalent in tropical countries. In this practice a
forest catch is cleared to raise aoncultural crops for one or
two years only and then shifted to another patch The practice
accordinq to so'ne studies is viewed as destructive due to loss of
vegetal cover soil nutrients etc but it is tacged to tribal
econcn and therefore deserves to be rationalized The Task Force
irade a thoroucih study and threw seine suQQesticns in this reaard
In this paper it is suooested to provide infrastructure facility
and financial help to shiftino cultivators to crow aancultural
or cash crops either over ravaced hills or over the lands that
night be alloted to then for oemanent aanculture.

TP£ PRACTICE AMO ITS HISTORY

Shifiting cultivation or shifting slash and bum ferairo is
an agricultural practice prevalent in tropical countries. It Is
traced beck to historical ages. Soi»e 12.000 years aoo the neo-
lithic ran shifted from food collecting to food produclro. deve-
loping an agriculture anc clearlno land (Bates 1961). Durlna this
tire, he discovered that seeds of certain grasses could be eaten.
To obtain these easily, he tried to grow then close to his abode".
The early Enqlish settlers In Virginia In the 17th century adop-
ted the shiftino agriculture already practiced by the Indians.
Shifting agricultural practice was still In use in the niddle of
19th centruy (Nye and Green-land I960). Such practice was carried
on around Mediterranean Basin for prehistoric millennia and for
sore centuries before the Spanish conquest In central Chile
(Aschrarn 1977). The Cultivator selected a piece of vlrpln forest
land, cut down the trees end Pushes, sowed the seeds nostly of
nijlets. pulses, curcurbits. etc., in drills made with stick
■W 1 I.T 1 U 0 T. 'oslTig pToobti vr Sudh virgin lands oave crops for

one or two years and thereafter the crop production started
declining because of dual reasons- one, the prooressive degrada-
tion of naturally available fertility of virgin soil, and the
other, soil erosion. He abandoned the land after one or two years
of cultivation and then moved toa new patch and repeated the
process. After certain duration of fallow period, the abandoned

•Dept of Botany, Berhaspur Universiti;. Berhaepur, India

482

land rehabilitated Itsdlf with reorown vecetation and became
available for facina a similar onslauoht all over aaain. Here the
farr-er Instead of chanoina the crops over the same plot chanced
the plot or shifted himself to another olot to grow the same crop
or shifted the cultivation thus known as shifting cultivation.

As years rolled by. people who lived in the river valleys,
resorted to settled or permanent annctilture and adopted moder
practices whereas isolated comrunlties living in the rcrroto areas
contained shiftinq cultivation. Therefore the shlftina cultiva-
tion is viewed as a transitional stage in the evolution of modern
land husbandry practices. At present In India, this practice is
largely confined to the tribal communities.

In settled agriculture the farmer maintains the fertility of
the soil by adding manure and fertiliser from time to time but in
case of shifting cultivation the poor tribal farmer has no money
for these energy subsidies, the burnt out ash of the slashed
veoetation is the only source of nutrition or enercv subsidy for
him

Shifting cultivation is a global phenomenon, particularly an
Asian one. It Is known as caloqin in PhlHiomes. Humahin Java.
Ladang in the East Indies and Malaya, tauncya !n Burma, tamaraf
in Thailand and ray in Indochina. In Chile it goes by the name
curben In India it is significantly practised in the North
Eastern region comorislng the states of Assam. Meghalaya. Naca-
land. Manipur. Tripura and Union Territories of Arunachal Pradesh
and Mizoram The practice is also prevalent in Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa and to a lesser extent In Bihar. Madhya Pradesh. Kerala,
Karnataka. Maharashtra and Sikkim. The practice is locally known
as jhum in North Eastern Region, podu in Andhra Pradesh, bewar or
dahra in Madhya Pradesh. In Orissa it Is known as dahi ffinno)
kaman (saving) and talla (upland) among the Juana of the Keonjhar
hills, as btnnga or kaman among the Paudi Bhutiza or Bonai sub-
division and Bhuinya pirch of Keonihar District, as baqada, barun
or mulel among Seoras and Mahal is of Ganjam District, as haren by
the Doncria Khond of Koraput District, as rama by the Oesla Khcnd
of Rairakhol and Bamra Sub-Division and as Uvanq or kunda chase
by the Bonda of Koraput District. In some places of South Orissa
It IS also known as podu, gudia, donger or chas.

In this destructive process, the character of vegetation
undergoes a drastic change. The regression proceeds a pace and
the forest of high trees given place to low vegetal cover such as
bamboo and shrubs (Chaturvedl and Uppal 1960).

THE TASK FORCE

The Government of India constituted a Task Force on shifting
cultivation. The Force prepared a report in October. 1983 which
will provide a basis for the Government to lauch an action prog-
ramme and curb shifting cultivation as an agricultural practice

Soil Moisture

Our investioatlon over Galda Hills (Ganjam District, Orissa)
revealefl interestino facts about soil nxslsture content. The soil
roisture content Of cultivated site was higher in all depths of
soil {0-10cm 10-20cn. 20-30cni) than the other site not subjected
to burnino (controlled site) during rainy months (July-October)
whereas tts reverse was the case during winter (November to Feb-
ruary) in the study year (Table 1).

Table 1. Soil moisture content at Galda Hills. Orissa

Time of Nature Percent water content at

collection of site different soil depths

0-10 cm

10-20cm

20-30

April 1983

10.38

9.15

7.01

10.20

8.2S

6.95

May 1983

12.72

It. 70

11.12

12.97

10.85

10.56

June 1983

13.68

10.47

11.02

13.08

10.07

10.13

July 1983

14.84

11.43

ID. 58

12.97

10.02

10.04

August 1983

14.78

11.77

11.67

10.73

9.67

9.40

September 1983

13.97

11.65

10.25

12.98

9.95

9 58

October 1983

11.73

9.75

9.63

10.85

9.93

9.76

November 1983

4.07

6.23

6.85

7.87

7.26

B.66

December 1983

2.28

4.57

3.06

4.96

5.05

6.27

January 1984

1.47

2.21

4.90

2.83

5.04

5.97

February 1984

2,03

2.67

3.03

3.86

4.02

4.86

March 1984

3.37

3.25

3.06

4.02

3.98

4.55

Burnt, C« Control

Soil Erosion

During the ICAR study the landuse based data indicated that
when the annual rainfall was 1628 nni, the soil loss per hectare

466

Effect on Veaetation

Our study of bloloolcal soectrum of forest vegetation over
Gaida Hills revealed that the Jhuirired site encouraaed irore of
annuals (therochytes) at the expense of prernnials and trees
(phanerophytes) as rerroval of forest cover makes the soil open
and changes the microclimate of the site. The study conducted
during 1983-84 at the above site indicated that the site was
phanero-therophytic which after shiftino cultivation turned to be
thero-ohanaronhytlc compared to the controlled site. Ramakrlshnan
u1983° reported that the effect of short ihun cycles is the raoid
Growth of various weed species resulting in depletion of the
oermplasm because of drastic channes In micro-climate and other
elements of the habitats.

Effect of Population

The areas inhabited by shifting cultivators are sparesly
populated in general, with varied population density of 6 to 60
per so km. as against 173 for the country as a whole. Even this
low density of population tends to exert heavy pressure on land.
Because most of these ooeple are landless and they take to shift-
ing cultivation over no man s land. 1 e. forests.

In certain parts of the country (particularly jn Orissa) the
habit of rearing livestock in large numbers which depend on land
for free grazing is another factor for speedy degradation of
land.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

National Commission on Agriculture (NCA, 1976). Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO) United Nations Fund for Popula-
tion Activities (.INFFA) sponsored proiect "Population Data Reoar-
dinq forestry Community Practising Shifting Cultivation" (1980)
and Indian Council of Aaricultural Research (ICAR) worked out
some solutions earlier in order to solve the problems ansino out
of shifting cultivation. After reviewing them, some suggestions
are made here.

1 Provision of permanent cultivation to shifting cultivators
along with infrastructure facility and financial help for energy
subsidies like fertilisers, irrigation, etc. and introduction of
Imijrovetl see.d.s, an/1 TCyle.ro. met.'p/tid.s. .

2 . Development of water ha-'vestinq devices as suggested by ICAR
to make use of runoff water from hill slopes for crop irrigation,
pisciculture, etc.

3. Application of do-it-and-see technigue to educate the ihumias
about the benefit of rationalisation of this prctice. People are
touched more by examples than by advices. The demonstration plot

487

may be divided into two coual halves for comoarinq traditional
shlftina cultivation rrodern agriculture. The difference of these
two rrethods wiH soeak of the orofit

4 Provision of alternative' to irriaation This mav include
Dlantation overdeqraded forests and hills horticultural ocera-
tion etc keeoinq cereal cultivation to a minirrun to avoid
losses through soil erosion. This will aive dual benefit namely
rehabilitation of deoradcd land and eonomic benefit to ihumas.

ReoUcerent of ihum by intensive aqrtcultural practice has
not been recommended as a realistic solution to the problem
either The limitations include the traditional life style of the
people (rrobilitv of the tribes) erosion, heavy inputs for prepa-
ring terraces atono the slones. etc (Ramaknshnan 1983)

The Orissa Environmental Society a voluntary orqanisation
in Orissa conducted a numbi-r of peoolcs workshops in Phulbani,
Koraput and Caniam Districts all nodu affected areas The rural
end tribal participants sooaested that while makina plantation
the tree species must be selected as the local people desire ana
the area should be left to them for after-care and benefit This
confirms the INFPA recofrmendations. Further accordino to them
the shiftino cultivation practice is tedious and less oa/ino and
they offer to oivc uo the oractice once thev are alloted aoncul-
tural land for cultivtion {Padhi 1982). Our study conducted or
6&Ua HlUs in Gaman District of Orissa in 1903 reveled that the
per acre annual revenue from this cultivation was hardly about
Rs. 200 per year.

5. Effective field based research to imorove this baneful prac-
tice rust be encouraged. The direction of research should be
towards rehabilittion of podu ravaoed forests and hill slopes
which IS imoerative for restoration of ecolooy and while doino so
the socio-economic rehabilitation of pcoole should not be over-
looked.

6. Ohum control act/regulation- The National Forest Policy, 19*12
laid stress on weanino away the primitive people by persuasion
from the baneful practice. It is necessary that the cultivation
has to be requlated. If not stopped altogether, so that fresh
intrusion into the forsts does not take place.

REFERENCES

Annpnyrrous. 1983. Task Force Report on Shifting Cultivation in
India. Ministry of Agriculture J Cooperation, Govt, of
India, New Delhi.

Aschtrann, H. 1977. Aboriginal Use of Fire. o. 132-141, In- Pro-
ceedinas of the Symposium on Environmental Consequences of
Fire and Full Manaaement in Mediterranean Ecosystems. U.S.
Dept, of Aqric.. Palo Alto, California.

Bates. L. 1961. Man in Nature, Prentice-Hal I , Englewood, New
Jersey.

Chaturvedi. M.D. 1903. Envlroninenta! Priorities for IridJa.

Mazinqira. Indian Edition. 7 (3)* 54-66.

Mooney F I9fi. Shiftlnq Cultivation in Orissa, Aoriculturl

OeDt. Soil Conservation Oroanisatlon. Orissa.

Nye P H. and D.G. Greenland. I960- The Soil Under Shifting
Cultivation. Comronviealth Bureau Soi 1 . Sci. (O.K.).Tech.
Cotrmun 51 1- 156.

Padhi. 6.S. 1963. Forestry in India- A Critical Study. Int. Book
Distn.. Oehra Oun.

Ramakrishnan. P.S. 1983. Ecoloaical ImpMcations of Jhuffi Cultiva-
tion on Eco-system Functions of Sub-tropJcaJ HuDid Forest
Stand. In Annual Report 1982-83. Dept, of EnvjronT^nt,
Govt, of India.

EMERGING PROBLEM OF POLLUTION IN THE DOOM VALLEY

Asha Raj\anshi, Reni Kam and M.N, Snvastava*

INTRODUCTION

Witn the Himalayas. Siwaliks Ganaa and Yaruna forming its
natural boundaries is the valley of Doon ncn in flora and fauna
Lying between 77° 35 E to 78° 19 E longitude and 29° 57 to 30°
30 N latitude it represents one of the imoortant ecolooical
entities of our country Not only it owes its Dooulanty as a
hill resort to its balmy climate but also to its rich animal
life, dense forests and its luscious fruits It was in Ooon
where for the first tirre in India, the Chinese tried the tea
plants end along with them they brought the Litchi saplings. This
Litchi took to the climate of OehraOun and grows most luxuriantly
to this day in every house where one will find at least one
Litchi groove. Nature has also bestowed the rich resources of a
large variety of minerals particula’^ly linestone pyrites and
phosphates in the Hlmala>9S. Mining of these minerals in the area
has also boosted the status of Oehra Dun. tfrbaniration also
accelerated the growth of many industries including the limo
industry and Ooon Valley distillery. Concerned with material
acquisition, flogging the pace of progress, we have become too
accepting nay be even careless about the ecological disturbances
that constantly recverbverate around us. with envircnrental com-
promises not only the flora an fauna but the water, the soil and
the air ofthis valley are being directly affected.

The present paper deals with some hydrological and environ-
mental problems in Oehra Dun which have altered the face of the
Valley from beautiful lush oreen to ugly and scarred one. For a
more comprehensivce study of the pollution problems case studies
were made

CASE I. LIht INDUSTRY

Lire industry is one of the oldest in the vallev and was
established sometime during the riddle of the century. Ever since
It Yiat, been -grtMTTro to it's oresent position with more fnan
150 kilns located along the river Risoana. The simultaneous
operation of these smoking stacks almost in the heart of citv has
created much concern a-ong the environmentalists. The pollutants
from these kilns, both caseous and particulate are a constant

*Dept of Botany, D A V. Post-Cradjate College. Dehra cun. India

490

threat to both veoetation and Inhabitants of the area. A survey
was earned out in neiohbourinq areas of these kilns. Residents
of the Kashi Mani Ashraw locality. OalanwaJa and Adhojwala were
interviewed to acQualnt us with problems that the residents face.
Almost all persons complained of one disorder or the other. The
results are summarised below (Table 1).

Table 1 Effect of air pollution on the health of the residents
of the areea.

Type of disorder t of the persons sufferlnq from disorder

Children

Persons

below

10-20

25-40

above

10 years

years

55 years

Breathing trouble mainly
due to suffocation

13.8

17.8

Pneumoconiosis

19.4

8.0

Bronchitis

11.8

Cataract

...

—

15.8

Other coronary disorders

Skin disorders

B.5

—

It was also comiTion that the same person complained of more
than one disorder in sone cases. We suspect that one disorder
often made them more susceptible to other disorders.

Some cases did rot have any complaint at all. This was
either attributed to their short period of setlement in the area
or to their havina accustomed to local conditions qradually. Most
disorders resulted from inhaling the dust that became permanent
part of the air and resulted from transportation, processing and
packing of proucts. This dust also entered the eyes and settled
on skin surface causing coronary diseases and skin disorders
respectively. Chemical analysis of the dust identified It to have
oxides of calcium, sulphates and chlorides. A measurement of the
rate of dust settlement on surfaces was made using standard
methods (Warner 1974) and dust load as high as 1063.5 ma/m /day
was observed. Plunkett (1966) described similar disorders due to
CaO and determined a threshold value to be 1 mq/cu.m for the
presence of CaO in atmospheres around the lime industry and
predicted toxic effects at concentrations above these. Neai
{ 19fl3.l also reporied of jrute o'wi'morooDsJs .’.o

working in the mines or residing In neighbouring areas. The gases
from the lime kilns have also contributed to various disorders
mentioned above. It is also evident from the data that certain
distinctions that setthe young apart from adult play a roie in
air pollution difficulties experienced in many children. The
tendency towards breathing trouble develop eearly in life. Next

section of people nost affected include the older people. It is
tragic to realise that thisclty which gained its popularity as a
"city of green hedges and grey heads” had very litle to offer to
older people who settled here after their retirement because they
found the serenity and greenery of the mountains all conducive to
the type of life they looked forward too.

The plants too are mute sufferers much at the expense of
unfavourable alterations in their environment. Several Orchard
trees like Manqifera indica, Psidiutn quajaya. Citrus and Litchi
failed to yield good fruits. Ornamentals like " Kerium sp. and
Chrysanthemum sp. had poor bloom in the vicinity of tfie industry.
Often the Teaves of many plants remain coated with dust This
dust hinders light penetration into the leaf and thus hamoer
photosynthetic activities which are reflected in reduced Diqment
concentration of some plants.

Table 2. Comparison of chlorophyll content (iro/q) in some plants
from polluted and healthy areas.

Plant

Population

Chloro-

Total

status

phyll a

phyll b

Chloro-

phyll

Manao

Polluted

0.22

0.37

0.59

Healthy

0.33

0.52

0.65

Citrus

Polluted

0.31

0.42

0.74

Healthy

0.45

0.93

1.38

Litchi

Polluted

0.62

0.72

1.34

Healthy

0.83

1.15

2.03

Reduction in chlorophyll content which has been regarded as
an index of productivity (Bray 1960) has also been reported by
Lai and Mbasht (1980) and Yusuf and Vyas (1983) in plants orow-
inq around cement industry, by Mall and Singh (1977) and Snvas-
tava (1933) around other industrial areas. The alteration of the
soil properties by addition of bases and effluent qases from the
kilns together change the physiology of these plants both by
altered qas exchange and mineral uptake from the soils. These
physioloaical and biochemical changes result in poor yield of
some economically important plants of the area like wheat and
Arhar. Among the orchard trees that suffered much were Litchi and
Citrus, and both have been favourite with the people of Dehra
Dun. Some old residents of the valley recall the nostaloic memo-
ries of the days when there were so many Litchi trees that they
just had to raise their hands from their terrace to pluck the
fruits from the dense oroves but today we see thesetrees in
dwindling state with poor yield, low pulp content and less pala-
tability. Variation in edible part (as much as 21.281) has been

492

reported from most polluted 2 rBas. Sirilarly averaoe welcht of
fruit fro"i rost polluted a-eas is as low as 10.53 g co~pared to
14.65 g from non-polluted areas.

CASE 11. DOOM VALLEY DISTILLERY

Hydrological probleirs that the valley faces are those that
enerqe fro"' a distillery situated in a near by area. This distil-
lery IS located in Kuanwala a few km away fro~ the town and Its
products are chiefly country spirit. River Reh which carries the
effluents Cischaroed frc” this distillery has a serious threat to
the cuality of its water. Analysis of the effluents end the
reccivino water system was carried out following the rethods
suoested by Ueich (1949) Pollution source from the distillery
which pose a threat 15 soent-wash from fementatvon tanks.

The fol lowing table shows the levels of various chemicals in
the effluent and receiving water.

Table 3 Analysis of certain phvslco-cheTical parameters of
effluent ana receiving waters

Parameters

Effluent Receiving water

Terrperature 'C
pH

Total solids {pp”')
Dissolved COi (ppm)
Chlorides (opm)
Sulphates (ppm)

BOD (ppm)

63.0

30.0

3.2

1750

16S0

3073

1076

1170

1100

UOO

1158

40.000

30.000

With above observations at hand it will not be difficult to
list the pollution effects of these effluents. Analysis of waste
water for phytoplanktonic components reveal the presence of spe-
cies of Microcystis. Anabaena, Chlorella. Protococcus. Phomi-
diurr, Gleocapsa and Chaetomorpha along with some unidenfifi^
species^ Abnomal ly hi oh and constant terperature, presence of
total salts, low dissolved oxygen content and excess of carbon
dioxide create ideal environment for bloom fominq blue oreen
algae like Microcystis. Anabaena and Nostoc (Palmer 1980).

These species orow exponentiaHy for several, weeks and fom
dense bloom. These algae usually have vacuoles filled with air or
gas which expand m the warm water emg rise to surface forminq
dense scum, thus preventing Hqht penentration to lower layers
and decreasing the oxygen content considerably. All these events
cause the death of number of fishes and other aquatic animals.

493

Similar reports of increased irortality and reduced fish size have
been reported by other workers also.

The nature of toxic substances in Microcystis is however not
known but the rnost cofrron clinical infestations have been those
involving the aastrointestinal tract. Several cases of conjuncti-
vitis and asthama have been observed in patients who had a swim
in the lake with altjal bloom. The effluent staqnates in the dram
or in stream in absence of oxygen or iray pet decomposed anaerobi-
cally by the action of mcro-oraanistrs which lead to production
of several obnoxious compounds and gases like methane, anines,
rrercaptans. hydrooen sulphide and phosgene all having ill odours.
These compounds degrade the status of receiving waters and are as
such detrirrental to life (Verma et al. 1979).

Apart from the above mentioned oroblems of pollution that
challenge the valley are those from minino. The serious environ-
ment impact of mining is loss of surface cover and vegetation and
along with it is the loss of top soil which nature build up
perfectly although slowly. The loss of top soil often facilitate
the reaction of various rock chemicals with water rendering it
unfit for agriculture, and irore so for human consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

The above findings do not justify public alarm but suggest
an area warranting more systematic and extensive investigations.
Methods for abateirent of pollution in the industries should be
designed at the time of setting the industry. The realisation to
preserve the greenness of the land and the health of the people
should be the objective of the residents of the valley. It should
be borne in mind that development of the industries in the area
should be in a consonance with benefits from natural sources.

ACKM0WLED6EMENTS

The authors are thankful to the U.G.C. for financial assis-
tance. Thanks are also due to Dr M.R. Shama, Head, Department of
Botany. D.A.V. College, Dehra Dun, for necessary facilities.

REFERENCES

i.Sk. twa. ttffiteffA. tfi stme Tiat-ive anti

managed plant corrumties in central Minnesota. Canadian J.
Botany 3B- 313-333.

Lai, Bechu and R.S. Ambasht. 1980. Effect of ce-ent dust pollu-
tion on plants of Psidiun ouaiava, Indian J. Environ. Health

22(3)- 231-237.

Mall. L. P.. V. P. Singh and S. V. Ramareo. 1977. Influence of
industrial pollutants on pioment concentration of some angio-
sperm flora. Indian. J. Environ. Health. 19* 365-367.

494

Negi. S.S. 1983. Environmental Problems in Himalaya. Bisben Slnqn
Mafiendra Pal Slnofi, Oehra ft;n.

Palmer, Vervin. 1980. Algae and Water Pollution. Castle House
Pub.. London.

Plunket. E.R. 1966. Handbook of Industrial Toxlcolooy. Cehmlcal
Publishing Co.. New York.

Srivastava. R.K. 1983. Effects of industrial pollutants on chlo-
rophyll content of some herbaceous plants of Bhopal. In ti.N.
Rao. T.P. Shama and U.R. Slnqh (Eds) Air Pollution: Prob-
lems and Perspectives EPCO. Bhopal.

verma. S.R.. A.K.Tyagl, K. Kumar and R.C. Oalela. 1979. Character-
istics and disposal of distillery wastes. Proceedinos of the
Syrposiuffl on Environmental Biology 281-301.

Warner. P.O. 1974- Analysis of Air Pollutants. John Wiley. N.Y.

weisch. P.S. 1943. Ll/mologlcal Methods. HcGraw Hill Book Co.,
New York.

Yusuf. M. and L.N. vyas. i903. Effect of cement dust pollution on
selected plant species orowlng around Udaipur Cerent works
Bajaj Nagar. Udaipur. In- O.N. Rao. T.P. Shanra and Udal Raj
Sinqh (Editors) Air Pollution: Problems and Perspectives.
EPCO, Shooal-

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN CONSERVATION

S.T. Tilak*

INTRODUCTION

Indoor air is usually exchanged fairly and rapidly by
ventilation with outside air. Because of this exchana** th® irlcro-
blal content of the air Indoors tends to chsnq® However Indoor
pollen and spores are usually very truch lower in concentration
than outside air. Gut added to microbes cotrino in throuah the
window, or ventilators Indoor air coftnonly has other microbes
derived from Indoor sources The microbial flora of the Indoor
air depends on the number and kind of oroanjsms present and thn
mechanical movements within the enclosed space (Madeline and
Linton 1974).

The problem of the deterioration of wall palntinos caused by
biological agents has assumed serious proportions in many coun-
tries and is a maUer of oreat concern, in the early stages of
attack by blcloalcal aoents. tt Is easier to chock the orowth but
once the malady becomes widespread Jt is oxtre/rejy difficult to
deal with. It Is with this idea the prclintnary survey for th"
elr-spoia at AJanta. Eilora and Auranoabed caves was undortaken.

Several hyphomycetes cause blodetertorallon of frescoes and
painted canvases, e.a. species of Penicilllum, Cladosooniun,
Fu sarlum, Gliomastlx. Sporotrl chum, Al ^r I s ma Damaocn s oartTcu-
lariy cormon under conSRlons'of hlQKnnrriiTcnTv and poor ventila-
tion. In a study of funoal delerlorallon of frescoes In churches
in Florence In Italy followlno floods In 196& Garaanl (1968)
reported several species of Penicl 11 lum as the most cc“tDon causa]
moulds. Application of nystatin cbnlrols orowth of many of th®
fungi and prevents deterioration of palntinos. Painted surfaces
must be washed down with oiwonlum carbonate following use of the
antibiotic. With water soluble nystatin, this kind of Ireatmont
has proved effective for application as a prosprvatlve for both
unaffected and damaged paintings.

The deterioration of library materials by micro-organisms
has attracted the attention of many in recent years. The role of
blodeterloqens and the deterioration wlih reference to libraries
and museums had been recently revlcwd by many workers (Greathous®
et al. 1954. Flystc 1568, Callow and Fustal 1963). Th® presence
of actlnomycetes in the library has been reported by Kowallk and
Sadurska (1961). Aleksl (1985) reported species Of Ifi funol on
stored manuscripts. The efforts are directed towards reduction of

•Departnent of fioturi'/, Hsrat/ivada Ajranirabad, IndJ 3

iQ6

these losses tv firSins c*-t th** cc-'ditions. causes e-i e^vircn-
nsntal factors v*iich cc-iribjte tc th“ bjoiet^ricratioi cf tro<s
end the birsiro -atenal like leather, rexjre and cloth.

CcnsiCerma th® sic''ificant role cf ajr-bome bjodster jooons
in Its Celitericjs effects cn cave rairtmos. libra'-v -aterials.
extensive eir nonttcnno fcrrs a n*>ed of day and h»s recently
attracted reny workers end th*se .nvesticstic-s have troj:‘'t c-t
neaninoful infcr^atton.

KiTE»!*LS ‘'•TH^DS

The notcrcd se-oUrs cf Perkins (1*^571 rooified tv Har’-i-'c-
tcn (icsa) coeratec inside the Aianta. Ellcre end Ajranoetad
caves. Iibrao builldmcs. Tne Tilak air S>“oler (Tilak a-'d
Kulkarrj 1C70) ^gj coerated irsiCe the caves. Other -at®rials and
reihoCs used in the cresent study v^ere sa"e as reoorted by Tilak
and Kulkami (1Q72).

RESULTS

Investicaticns in Ajra-ce'-ed {T*lek e-d tulkar-i 1^7^) c*vas
fcere initially carried cut to assess th* c-ese-ce c* -jcrcoial
cooulaticns. These investiatjcns cleanly ^ointed cjt t^'e sicnifi-
cant contnbJticn cf air socra- Fu-ther studies in EJlora caves
end A'anta caves *.-ere undertaken (Tilak et al. 197?). w*'ich ue-e
characterized by frescoes and camtinos rescectivelv.

Ajenta caves no.t?. 16 and 1 v#ere selected to study t^'e air-
spera. D-rins sa“3lino tire the scraooincs fro* csiartincs at
diffemet levels and roints were selected for ncrosccDic obser-
vations. The Spore types like Asoercillus. Curvulana, Cladospo-
riir and Ascospores are cemon in all the three caves. Air-spcre
was studied at two caves cf EUcta. 16 and 32 as these caves
carry irportant paintinos and detericraticn is ruuch rerked here.
Here it was also observed that the insect scales are ruch abun-
dant in cave no. 32. particularly the crou^id floo*'. It uas due to
the presence of nany bats end ether birds in this cave. The
insect scales and insect body parts as well as esco'yeete spores
were also observed alcno with the excreta of bats and fallen
acrappinqs of paintings.

In their extensive studies (Tilak and Vishwe 1975, Tilak. et
al. 1582. and Tilak and Saibaba 1534) inside the library bjldinas
60 funcal spore types vere caucht cf v^ich n funoal spcre types
exhibited paper deteriorations activity. These 11 funoal spore
types and insect scales constituted 52 S of the total air-spcre
and renaming 49 spore types and binding threads constituted E«
of the total air-spo'a. The satiles of the hirid walls after
critical examination indicated presence of Cladosporium. Aspergi-
llus and Penicilliu-. These ray also be the source of air-soora
inside the library. It is clear frer the data shown in Table 1

that 11 fungi had deteriorating activity, in order to understand
the relationship between cellulase production and paper deterio-
ration, the fungi were grown on different papers and paper mate-
rials as substrates. All the Isolated fungi practically deterio-
rated all types of paper materials and possessed cellulolytic
actlcity In culture filtrates.

All the fungi, taken for the study, were deteriorating
Glossy paper (GF). and Rexin (R) very less. However. AsperoUlus
and Chaetonuum were responsible for the deterioration of book
paperTBP) rore than other papers.

DISCUSSION

The alr-spora Inside the caves is more than outside the
caves. The occurrence of fungal spores especially of ascomycetes
on excrete of bats In air and on the paintings possibly suggest
that some coprophilous fungi are predominating in the decomposi-
tion of paintings. Imperfect fungi like Cladosporium, Aspergillus
and others which are coroionly abundant on the paintings and in
air may also be responsible In playing the active role.

Curvularla, Aspergillus . Altemaria. Ni grospora . Periconia .
Helmlnthosoorium . Bispora, Fusan'um ^ Tonj^a. Cladoso orurn and
pj^OTyces were of conron occurrence in the air of library as
as round associated with the deteriorated samples of books.
Regarding the cellulose destroying activity and the damage
of books by the comoa air-borne fungi like Alteniarla . Penieil-
lium, Blspora . Chaetomium. Cunnlnqhamella end fulfilled. When
dltTriorallon ability ano enzyme production by fungi on different
cellulolytic substrates were compared. It was noted that Cunnln-
ghamella echinulata deteriorated Newspaper (NP) nore, although
the production of enzyme was low. On the contrary in case of
Rexin (R) and leather (L) deterioration was very less whereas
enzyme production was maximum in culture filtrates. Such rela-
tionship has also been found in other fungi study.

On the basis of observations, suggestions are also made to
prevent the damage by using fungicides and insecticides, and
avoiding highly humid conditions by maintaining the temperature.
Over long periods paintings tend to deteriorate and there is
an urgent need for restoration for which a multidisciplinary
approach Involving microbiologists, aerobiologists. biochemists,
pollution scientists' and archaeologists has to be undertaken.
The role of deposition of cfust particles on the paintings is not
significant. Often the paintings are coated with varnish which is
initially smooth and transparent but gradualloy looses Its flexi-
bility. Often the coated surface changes its colour and gradually
may be scratched by accident or due to deliberate action of
visitors.

The preservation and conservation of the wall paintings of

498

Ajanta js thus vitally iirtjortant In protecting our national
nentaae and pending further Investigations following points
should be given irrportance on war footings.

1. Excessive humidity inside the caves can be reduced by checking
water percolation especially during rains.

2. Scientific preservation and restoration could be achieved by
fuTioation.

3. Spray of fungicides has to be undertaken which would Inhibit
the fungal growth.

4. In spite of repeated warnings by several coiriittees of the
Central Government and scientists, cave No. 17 with Important
paintings is still closed and this has made the problem more
serious since It has helped the development of a congenial envi-
ronment for the growth of microbial population Inside the caves,
thus defeating the very purpose of conservation.

5 . Extensive and Intensive Investigations with trultidisciplinary
approach should be undertaken without further delay.

lable 1 Percent contribution of sorre iroortant spores and
other mlcro-orgaoisms Inside the caves and library

Spore Types

Auranoabad

Caves

Library

building

A1 terraria

1.40

S.76

AsoerolTTus

7.93

bTswra

4.S8

CFaTTomlum

3.39

Liacosoorium

30.00

60.42

2.69

lunninghamelia

0.33

Lurvuiaria

5.29

1.40

11.89

H^minthosporlum

3.98

2.30

5.38

Kypnai fragments

7,80

Insect scales

5.05

9.00

Niarospora

3.30

2.20

kaeci lomyces

7.51

PincTTTUm

0.35

PFriconia

1.30

5.63

PFotozoan cysts

6 80 *

4.90

Rhizopus

1.38

Rust spores

6.00

e.03

-2.80

Torula

0.47

Trichoderma

499

REFERENCES

Aleksl. M.L.G. 1965. Mycoflora of an archives store room and
results of testing sane physical measureirents against It.
Soobsch. AfCad. Nauk. Cruz. S5R 39- 686-688.

Flyste. D.M. 1968. Preservation of Oocuments and Papers. Edited
and Transl . by J. Schmorak. U.S. Dept Of Commerce. Spring-
field. Va.

Gallow. F. 1963. Biological agents which damage paper materials
in libraries and archives, lot G. Thomson (Ed.). Recent
Advances In Conservation. Butterworth. London.

Gargani. G. 1968. p. 252-257. in A.H. Walters and J.O. Elphick
(Eds) Biodeterioration of Materials. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Greathouse. 6. andWessel. 1957. Deterioration of Materials:
Causes and Prevention Techniques. Reinhold. N.Y.

Herrington, J.0. 1959. High efficiency pollen sampler for use in
clinical allergy. J. Allergy 30: 3-16.

Kowalik. R. and J. Saflurska. 1956. Microorganisms destroying
paper, leather and wax seals In the air of archives. Acta
Microbiol. Polon. 5: 227-284.

Madeline. K.E, and A.H, Linton. 1974. in: t.E. Hawker and A.H.
Linton (Eds) Microorganisms: Fimctlon, Form and Environment.
Edward Arnold. London.

Perkins. W.A. 1957. The Rotorod sampler. 2nd Semiannual Rept,
Aerosol Lab.. Oept of Chemistry and Chem. Engg., Stanford
Unlv.. USA.

Tilak. S.T. and R.L. kulkarni. 1970. A new air sampler. Experi-
entla 26: 443-444.

Tilak, S.T. and R.L. Kulkaml. 1972. Hlcroblal content Of air in-
side and outside the caves at Aurangabad. Curr. Scl. 23:
850-851.

Tilak, S.T.. B.R. Stiarma, S.R. Sengupta and R.L. Kulkarnl, 1972.
Studies in the microbiological deterioration of paintings of
Ajanta and Ellora. Sudies In Museology. Baroda Uplv. 8: 20-
25.

Tilak. S.T. and D.B. VishHe.1975. Microbial content of air Inside
library. Blovlgyanam 1: 187-190.

Tilak. S.T.. S.G. Filial and M. Saibaba. 1962. Components of
airspora Inside the library and Its relevance to book dete-
rioration. Proc. 1st Nat. Conf. Environ, eiol: 173-177.

Tilak. S.T. and H. Saibaba. 1964. Aerobiological approach to book
deterioration In libraries. O. Plant & nature (In Press).

ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN FROM
AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

A. Peerally and W. Desai*

IKTROOOCT’ON

Mushrooms have played an 1i^>ortant role in the diet of nany
people for thousands of years and were prlred for their flavour
and condiment characteristics. Itowever, it is now being Increas-
ingly realised that they are rich In protein and thus ccnstittrte
a valuable source of supplementary food. Mushroons belong to the
group of organisms known as fungi. Fungi are non-flowering plants
which because of their dependency upon organic matter for nutri-
tion do not need and are devoid of chlorophyll. Instead they live
saprophytically or parasitically or symblotlcally with other
organisms or on the products of decomposition or the excrements
of those organism.

The group of fungi, comprising perhaps sene 100,000 species,
shows an amazing variety of forms from unicellular organisms like
the yeasts to giant mushrooms more than two feet in diameter. The
fungi are economically liDortant to man in numerous ways- anti-
biotic production, wine arxj beer making, bread making, food pro-
cessing, livestock feed, medicines, plant and animal diseases and
as human food.

The tern mushroom has no definite botanical ipeanir)g but it
Is generally applied to the fruiting bodies of higher fungi. Not
all mushrooms are edible. About 2,000 species ere reported to be
edible and only about 20 species have been brought under cultiva-
tion. Only a few of these are conperclally cultivated on a large
scale.

The use of mushrooirs as food Is probably as old as civiliza-
tion Itself. They have been reported as useful In food and medi-
cine In India as far back as 3000 6.C.

EOIBIC mSKROOMS

Bels (1978) has divided the cultivated mushrooms in the following
groups as far as the natural is concerned:

1. Fungi which grow on fresh or almost fresh plant residues:

Lentlnus, Flaitmullna, Aurlcularia, Phollota, Tremella,

Agrocy^, sanoderma. toprinus ano Pieurotus
Z. Fungi which grow on slightly cwposteci materials:

Coprlnus, Volvarlella, Stropharla.

•Agricvlture School, Univer9Jttf of Mauritius, Hettult. Maaritius

50 ^

3. Fungi that grow on well or thoroughly cospostad substrates:

Agartcus

4. Fungi which grow on soil and tnnus*

l' ‘nlota. Leplsta. Morchella, Gynwiitra

5. Hycorrhizal tungf*'

Boletus. Canthar cUus , Hatsutake. Mcrchella, Lactarlus,
Tuber

HUSKROOHS AND WASTE HANAGEHEKT

The fact that edible rushroors can be grown on wide variety
of cheap and sornetitnes virtually useless wastes: e.g. agricultu-
ral wastes, industrial wastes, household wastes, enhances their
Importance as food material. The spent compost left behind after
harvesting the mushroom is a good manure. The mushroom production
Industry can tl erefore be promoted on sound organic recycling
principles. It has been estimated that If only one-fourth of the
world s annual yield of straw (2,325 raillion tonnes) Is used to
grow mushrooms, about 370 million tonnes of fresh mushrooms could
be produced. Such an amount would provide 4.100 million people
with 250 g of fresh njshrooms dally. This Is the magnitude of the
potential available.

In view of the current energy, food and population problems,
the role of mushrooms In providing human nutrition Is being
Increasingly debated. Attention Is being seriously given at the
present time to the possibilities of their use as a source of
protein to enrich human diet In underdeveloped countries. Mush-
rooms have been recognised by the FAQ as food, contributing to
protein nutrition in areas of the world which depend predominant-
ly on cereal diets.

CULTIVATION OF AGARICUS BI5P0RUS

The first attempt at arltificlnl cultivation of A. bisporus
was made in France during the second half of the ITElf century.
Caves and cellars were used along with horse manure and straw,
the fermentation of which liberated natural heat. In the 20th
century, the cultivation of A. bisporus had greatly Increased,
particularly In the United Stales.

Morphology

Agsrlcus bisporus belogs to the family Agarlcaceae. The plleus is
fleshy, convex, flattened at full growth; measures 6-12 cm In
diameter: the surface Is silky or sightly and lightly flaky and
the most cormercially valuable strains are brownish and shared at
the edge. The hymenlum is gllled, first covered by the veil that

502

remains hanging from the stipe In characteristic fragments} ' the
gills are pinkish and tend to dark brown at full growth. The
stipe Is hard. full, fleshy. 8-10 cm high, but In the most valu-
able strains It Is short, stumpy and as large as the plleus:
silky and whitish In colour. The spores are brown, 7-8nn long and
5-6um wide.

Cultivation

Air circulation Is the most Important factor In the successful
cultivation of A. bisporus. The two most common methods of culti-
vation are the intensive method and the extensive method. The
first is particularly suitable for optimum space utilization. The
substratum or bed Is prepared on layered grates large enough to
permit suitable cultivation, ease of picking, and spaced out In
height for alr-clrculatlon and fungal growth. Modem grates are
of plastic, easily washed and non-perishable.

The second method consists of cultivation on substratum
contained In plastic bags that may either be laid on the ground
or hung on layered grates to permit air circulation. While with
the first method the second method permits the complete prepara-
tion of the bags, Including Inoculation to take place outside,
thus, avoiding the manipulation of organic matter which, even if
partially sterlUied, may contain parasites of A. bisporus. Vari-
ous sites may be used for cultivation.

Preparation of Inoculum

The preparation of a suitable Inoculum is essential for the
succeess of the mushroom bed but. Is above all of fundamental
importance for a quality commercial product. The traditional
method is still of considerable Importance; an organic substance
such as wheat or rye or other graminaceous seed is placed In
special battles (Roux bottles! and sterilized in autoclaves. The
bottle is then aseptlcally Inoculated with fragements of A.
bisporus fruit-body and Incubated at 24 “C until colonization of
the medium, l^en possible, a preliminary isolation of the mush-
room is advisable in an artificial agar substratum in order to
control Its sterility and origin. The pure culture prepared In
this way may then be Inoculated in the organic substratum of the
bottle. Choosing well developed fruit-bodies of different origins
Is advisable in order to obtain a rapid growth and a vigorous
strain producing fruit-bodies of good Quality.

Substratum Preparation

The substratum used In the cultivation of A. bisporus must
present several qualities In order to give regular ana proTonged
growth of the fungus. The preparation entails several sterllira-

503

tlcns but, dealing with organic substances, contamination Is
almost inevitable and may cause competition phenomenon during A.
blsporus growth.

To avoid this inconvenience, the substratum should be very
selective so as to follow the development of the mushroom and to
impede that of the competitive mlcroflora. For these purposes,
straw and horse manure have, for hundreds of years, represented
the most used material for substratum preparation. The natural
fermentation of horse manure produces sufficiently prolonged heat
to guarantee a suitable growth of A. blsporus and at the same
time prevents the growth of competitive mlcroflora. The Insuffi-
cient availability of horse manure now-a-days has however, caused
cultivators to use other organic matter, for example, bone and
horn meal, dried cattle blood, manure of other animals, but,
always adopting a substratum rich in organic substances.

Following is a popular fontula for obtaining a successful
substratum:

40 kg fresh chicken manure
600 kg straw
5 kg urea

10 kg ammonium sulphate

The raw material is placed in the substratum area and pre-
pared by frequent turning-over to favour alr-cIrcuUtlen and to
block harmful anaerobic fomenlatlcn. The mixture Is placed In
rows 1.5 in wide and 2 n high. Every three days the blend Is mixed
by special machines to favour aerobic transformation by the
contained microorganisms. During this phase, the temperature
rises to 80 "C when the tnesophlllc mlcroflora Is substituted by
the thermophilic, which lasts during the use of the substratum.
The mass should be aerated until It becomes hcrogenous, resistant
to torsion, and brown in colour; when squeezed it oozes a colour-
less liquid; It should hold 701 of water and have a pH of nearly
B. The material thus prepared Is then pasteurized at 55-60 ®C for
3-6 days In suitable pasteurization chambers. Pasteurization
duration depends on the maturity of the compound; it should no
longer have any armonia odour; should be brown, almost black in
colour and have a smooth texture; pressed in harwl It should not
stain; the optinura humidity Is from 65-77X; the pH 7-7.2. This
process reduces the number of netnatodes, accarlds and Insects
normally present In this type of organic matter and also that of
mlcroflora, allowing Agaricus, once inoculated, a competitive
growth with the other micro-organisms that colonize the substra-
tum. Once pasteurized, the compound must be Inoculated, and
placed In the bags. Every possible external contamination should
be avoided when bringing the closed bags to the mushroom bed,
where they are beates on the surface, levelled and kept half-
opened to favour the mycelial growth; then the surface is covered
by about 2 cm of sterilized soli, and watered. The soil ingredi-
ents vary according to the habits. A mixture of 501 peat moss,

504

25t crushed gravel , 25t pozzolana nay oo; another variation is
SOX peat moss and SOX fluvial sand. The Importance of the sol!
cover is considerable; the transformation of the vegetative stage
of the mycelium Into a reproductive stage, that Is, the produc-
tion of fruiting bodies, totally depends on It.

The temperature of the mushroom bed should be Initially kept
at from 18-32 «C with a humidity of about 901. Air circulation is
also necessary but, should r»t cause condensation In the bags or
rapid changes in temperature.

After this operation, the bags should remain half closed for
16-20 days, and be watered 2 or 3 times depending on the mush-
rooms bed conditions. It must be remembered however, that, exces-
sive watering favnurs parasites, especially competitive fungal
development, while scant watering slows down and diminishes pro-
duction.

The bags should be completely opened on the ISth day and
production should start on about the 20th day. The first produc-
tion Is undoubtedly the best: the fruiting bodies are not abund-
ant but are big and well developed. After the first harvest,
others may be reaped but production diminishes both In quality
and quantity. After the fourth harvest, waiting for further
production is usually no longer economically worthwhile.

The cultivation of A^ blsporus Is not easy and any small
technical error may corpromlse the production result, but a
simpler method of cultivation is being attempted.

CULTIVATION OF AGARtCUS BITORQUIS

The distribution, physiology and morphology of this species
are very similar to those already described for A. blsporus .
Owing to Its easy cultivation, flavour and populaiTty““6ri tRe
market, this mushroom seems promising for the rear future.

The species differs from a. blsporus . producing basidia with
four sterlgmata by which the nuclei migrate, forming four regular
basidlospores. Compared to A, blsporus. A. bltorquls Is more
resistant to infection, espe^alVy viruses .“^Thls characteristic
together with Its flesh consistency, has brought it to fame and
its conmerclal preservation Is believed to be superior to that of
A. blsporus .

Horphology

This fungus belongs to the family Agarlcaceae. The plleus Is
white with a smooth surface and measures, 5-9 cm In diameter. The
gills are pink but rapidly turn dark brown. Stipe Is short, large
and fleshy, 2-5 cm In height and 1.5-3. 5 cm In width. It presents
a simple annulus. The spores are dark brown in the mass.

Cultivation

Cultivation does not substantially differ froi that of A.
blsDoros. Although its resistance to infection is advantage, lls
higherTemperature requirement renders Its production more expen-
sive. Since optimal temperature ranges from 22-26 cultivation
of the species Is not reconnended In caves where even 12-14 "C
ere hard to reach. Furthermore, since ^ bitorquls gills rapidly
turn dark brown, fruiting bodies irust be picked when still closed
and Itmtedlately before plleus closure. It must be emphasized that
mechanical picking Is hindered by the shortness of the stipe. A.
bitorquls begins to fruit several days after A. blsporus. The
first crop picking start 22-26 days after covering the substratum
with upto 10-12 days between pickings.

According to Vedder (1970) Inoculation of the bed requires
five litres of inoculum per tonne of substratimi. Since mycelium
growth necessitates a carbon dioxide concentration higher than
that of A. bisporus, covering the bed should be brought forward
to 10-12 days after inoculation. This cover should also favour
the optimum temperature which is 30 ®C. A higher temperature may
compromise hyphae vital Ity, while a lower temperature seriously
redues development. In view of this fact, room ventilation is
essential and should be regulated to prevent temperature Increase
as well as to maintain the carbon dioxide concentration. Once the
bed and covering have been colonized, ventilation should be
augmented to bring the bed ten^rature to 25 *C, that is. to the
most favourable condition for fruiting. A. bltorquis is a quality
mushroom of interest. It is easily preserves^ ^TTced end dried.
The most Irportant aspect of Its cultivation, however, is Its
temperature requirement. This fact should distinguish it as a
significant source of income in tropical countrls where It might
bve grown concurrently with A. blst^rus.

CULTIVATIOH OF PLtUROUS OS7REATU5

in adltion to ^ blsporus, another excellent mushroom, P.
ostreatus . has in recent years been industrially produced.

TFiTs fungus belongs to the family Agerlcaceae. The plleus is
asynrtietrlc. aplanatlc, 5-15 on In diameter: the surface Is smooth
and sometimes shiny, vloIet-black. brown brownish grey. Violet
grey, margin Is Involute; the flelsh Is white and firm. The gills
are dense, unequal, decurrent (descending down the stipe) and
light ivory in colour. The stipe is 6-12 cm high and 1-1.5 cm
wide, firm, dense and latemal.

Cultivation

Cultivation techniques have been set up by Ferrl (1972 a.b).
The author suggests Inoculation of poplar branches 30 cm long and

506

15-20 cm wide, burled at about 15 cm in a shaded field and
abundantly watered. Ferrl (1972, b) also set up cultivation
techniques on organic substrata coirposed of corn-cob In plastic
bags. Once inoculated, bags are left open and layered. Mushroom
fruiting bodies then develop. Both methods offer very promising
results, both In quality and quantity.

Pleurotus has also been grown successfully on shreded paper.
A sterilized mixture of thoroughly wet paper with small smounts
of calcium carbonate and wheat bran has been shown by Stelnkraus
(1976) to be an excellent substrate. Straw, the sleepiest, most
readily available nutrient base has been studied to detennine the
products of its decomposition during P. ostreatus growth. All the
methods mentioned need a constant temperature of 25 *C to allow
colonization of frultlng-body development.

CULTIVATION OF PLEUROTUS ERTNCII

Ferrl (1977) again has recently and successfully experiment
ted with the Industrial production of £. erynoll . This mushroon
is of extremely nigh quality and is very suitable for preserva-
tion. This mushroon belongs to the family Agaricaceae. The pllcus
is fleshy, 4-l5 cm in diameter, convex or flat, grey-wtilte In
colour, with involute margins. The gills are. cream yellow, decur-
rent on the stipe; the flesh is white. The stipe is whitish, 3-10
cm high and 1-3 cm wids. The spores are cylindrical, whitish, 10-
14 X 5-6 pm.

The substratum used for the cultivation of this irwshroon Is
the same as for P. ostreatus. It irust be thermicaily treated in
order to eliminate those micro-organisms capable of ccmipetlng
with P. eryngll 's growth. The substratum is then placed in bags,
inoculated and Incubated at 25 ®C. After 40-50 days of incubation
the material is layered in pits, 1 m wide end 25 cm deep, filling
them almost to the top with soil. The polts are then covered with
about 2 cm of soil and sprayed with water. After a few days the
first fruiting bodies appear. Picking may be repeated and is
usualy exhausted within 45 days depending on latitude and on the
season; the Ideal is a temperature of 20-23 *C, moderate sunlight
and high humidity. To obtain those conditions, shading and Irri-
gation are recottmended (Ferrl 1979).

The inoculum preparat-ion is Identical for both fungi , Inner
portion of flesh is aseptically removed from a vigorous and well
developed fruiting body and placed In a test-tube containing
agar. This pure culture is Inoculated on an organic substratum
composed of ground corn-cobs, millet seed, sorghum seed, maize
seed, etc., contained In flasks previously sterilized in autocla-
ves or In a hot bath. If culture on an agar substratim is not
possible, the aseptically withdrawn fragmentsof the fruiting-body
may be directly Inoculated in bottles containing the sterilized
substratum. Incubated at about 24 •C, the fungus colonizes all

the substratun at Its disposal. The prepared Irwculun nay then be
used on tree trunks or In plastic ba^s containing the substratum.

CULTIVATION OF VOLVARJELW VOLVACEA

Cultivation of V. voWacea In China and neighbouring count-
ries has the same economic importance as that of A. blsoorus In
Europe.

y. volvacea belongs to the family Agaricaceae. Ripe plleus
reaches about 6-10 cm in diameter, regular with continuous edges,
surface is srrooth, dark green in the centre and light green on
the edge. The gills are straight and vary in sire even the large
stones do not reach the stipe (Change 1972). The stipe Is in the
centre of the plleus, 8 cm high and 0.5-1. 5 cm wide, white fleshy
ringless, with a volva, light brown in colour at the base, cup-
shaped. fleshy and with irregular edges. The basldlospores are
oval, rather Irregular In shape, slightly asymmetrical, 7.9 in -
5.6 un, their wall Is thick and smooth, they are dark brown when
ripe.

Cultivation

Volvarlella may be cultivated In beds similar to those used
for blsoorus . however, the ambience rust be lit by a 50 ft-
candle end maintain a constant temperature of 20 during the
entire season of cultivation. Furthermore, It should be naturally
or electrically ventilated, alr-clrculatlon being fundamental to
successful cultivation. Rooms slnllar to plastic green houses may
be prepared. This mushroom can be cultivated In the tropics
without special equipment.

Vegetal organic residues are used for bed preparation. Rice
straw end residues of cotton are principally used. First the
cotton iraterlal should be well dried. Second, It Is thoroughly
washed, piled up, covered with plastic sheets and left to ferment
for about 2 days. Finally it is pieced in layers, 12-20 cm high
end covered with 5-10 cn of fermented rlcestraw. The femnentatlon
of the cotton residues assures sufficient heat for the whole,
while the rice straw forms the basic substratum on which the
mycelliCT develops and produces fruiting bodies. After the bed
preparation, the inoculation takes place by placing mushroom
fragments on the straw, 10-15 cm apart. The whole is then moist-
ened and covered with a plastic sheet to avoid evaporation and to
maintain the correct temperature for mycellirn growth. This tempe-
rature reaches a constant 30-32 ®C in the bed if the room retrains
around 20 ^C. Itnldlty should be nainUlned by watering.

If conditions retrain optimal, production of fruiting bodies
begins 10 days after Inoculation. Over the following three days
production reaches its cl Ira* end the fruiting bodies may be

508

picked even twice a day. n^ey should be picked when still yoam.
that is. when the volva still encloses the plleus end lenedlately
prior to rupture. The fruiting body should be corpletely eradlce-
ted and not cut, so as toavold leavinc fungal residues to attract
parasites capable of detraglng the entlj ’ production.

The best production is obtained by inoculating the fungus
from a pure culture that Is isolated on an artificial agar redluo
by means of an aseptic withdrawal of a frultlng-body frament
placed directly on the substrattra. Under th^se conditions, the
hyphal cells genalnate and originate a new colony. Due to its
characteristics. V. volvacea, nay be easily cultivated outdoors
also. Areas that are hot, well shaded and possibly protected from
rain are necessary.

CULTIVATION OF COPRINUS FIHTTARIUS

The genus Coprlnus Includes several edible species unfortu-
nately of no corrnerclal value because of the difficulty of main-
taining Us freshness during transport to market. However, fruit-
ing bodies of C. flnetarlus last for about 3 days under refrige-
ration before deterioration. In addition. It has the necessary
Qualities for drylrw or jar preservation. Moreover, it Is easily
cultivated and excellent in flavour. This species has no particu-
lar requirements, adapts to the most varied temperatures and is
found In practically all teiperate countries.

Morphology

C- flmetarlus belongs to family Agarlcaceae. The plleus Is
canpanulate^ cylindrical . 0,6-2 cb wide, 0. 8-2.5 cm high; initia-
lly covered by a veil surface is smooth and pure white in colour.
The stipe is 1.5-5 cm high, 5-8 nm wide, elevate, volva of diame-
ter 0.6-2 cm. Surface Is towentose and pure white. Spores are
black, smooth, 8. 5-1. 5 X 6.6 pm.

Cultivation

The optlnitB temperature for growth is usually between 35-40
*C; nevertheless. C. fitnetarius grows well below 20 *C. Relative
humidity Is important and should be maintained around 80X. Fruit-
body production may be made easier by using low-intensity blue
light (flourescent camterclal light) on the beds.

According to Kurtman (1970) the substratum components
should include; straw, water and calcium nitrate. The straw must
be fresh, undeteriorated and unwashed, it Is moistened with hot
water (80 ®C) three or four times the straw weight, pasteurized
and 50 kg of calcium nitrate per tonne of water and straw is
added. The well mixed substratum is layered 15 cm high In the
bed. The mixture should fill half the depth of the bed^

C. flmetarius cultivation requires neither heating nor ven-
tialtlon, Khich brings Its cultivation cost down to the lowest of
all nushrooms.

The Inoculum Is prepared by Isolating the fungus on pure
culture and cultivating It in sterilized sorghum se^s, in Roux
bottles, incubated at 30-35 'C. The rushroon colonises with
extreme rapidity. The cnr^led inoculum is spread and mixed with
the bed surface which is 5X of the straw weight.

Fruiting begins two days after substratum colonization.
Since the fruiting bodies mature In a short time, the cultivator
should crop quickly In order to avoid deterioration. Artificially
lit mushroom beds contribute to uniform maturity and permit
systematic picking.

During harvest and above all between fruiting, the bed
should be kept damp. Production terminated when straw no longer
retains the water which rapidly drains fron the bed.

The cultivator nay obtain up to 60» of the bed weight by
operating sensibly. Production the-^fore, surpasses that of A.
blsporus. The low production costs renders this nushrocsn profita-
ble, especially in the topics.

CULTIVATION OF FL/mulNA VtlUTIPES

Flairnulina velutlpes is one of the most cultivated mushrooms
in Japan. Valued for its delicacy of flavour and for its ease of
cultivation on poor substrata.

Horphology

F. velutlpes belongs to family Tricholorataceae. The plleus
is 2-3 cm in diameter; hemispherical, then flat at maturity. The
surface is lightly viscous, yellow-brown or dark brown with
shaded margins. The flesh is w**itt5h. The gills are whitish or
cream coloured; decurrent on the stipe. The stipe is 2-9 cm high,
2-8 cm wide; base dark brown and becorss lighter at the tip. The
spores are white, cylindrical end oval, 5-7 x 3-c pn.

Cultivation

The fungus causes wood decay, and nay be grown on broad-leaf
and conifer tree stuTJS, Also thrives and fruits on agar media In
laboratory.

Sawdust nixed with rice husks is the most oriro nly used
substratum In Japan. Sawdust of broad-leaf trees is ouch more
suitable and profitable than that of Cryptomerla iaponlca and
Chamaecyparl 5 ob tusa , both native of Japan. The substratwi Is
pfepared~6y“mlxiriObur parts of sawdust with one part of rice
husks, adding 58-60X water. 1000 ml bottles are then filled with
about 540 g of the mixture, stoppered with cotton, and sterilized

510

Jn an autoclave for four hours at 95 "C (Tonomaaru 1978). After
sterllUatlon one or trore bottles are Inoculated with aseptlcally
teased-out sections of fruitlng-body or even better, with the
mycelium obtained from pure cultures on agar media. The bottles
are Incubated at 22-24 "C. Once colonited, part of the inoculated
medium Is transfered Into the remaining bottles. A bottle of tOOO
ml generally suffices to Inoculate 50 to 60 other bottles. The
Inoculated bottles are then olaced In special chambers where the
temperature Is maintained between 18-20 *0, The mycelium invades
the substratum within 20-25 days. The bottles are then opened and
the substratum surface leveled to stimulate fruiting. The bottles
thus surface levelled to stimulate fruiting. The bottles thus
prepared are placed in dark rooms at 10-12 ®C temperature and BO-
65S humidity. Moisture regulation and a steady temperature are
esentlal for fruiting. The earliest stages of development appear
In 10-14 days. During this period, the temperature Is lowered to
3-5 ®C to allow for a more slower but more regular growth. When
the stipes reach a height of about 2 cm. temperature is brought
up to 5-8 and humidity maintained at 78-60t. The stipe conti-
nues to grow and are supported by paper or plastic strips placed
on the necks of the bottles.

When the frult-bodles are about 13 cm high, the strips are
removed and the mushrooms are picked. The maturation of the
fruiting bodies takes 50-60 days. Some bottles may fruit a second
time but production is limited. The first production yields 100-
400g and the second only about 60-80 g.

F. velutlpes, thus has low substratum regulretnents but since
It demands particular temperature and himldity conditions, its
cultlatlon becomes costly.

CULTIVATION OF LENTiNUS EDODES

This mushrom is very popular in eastern Asia, especially In
Japan, for its quality and easily prepared beds. It may be culti-
vated by small farmers and by famlltes and is very convenient
when dried. In Japan it Is considered a choice food source and Is
regarded as having nutritional value and healing powers.

Morphology

It belongs to family Tricholwnataceae. The plleus is small,
fleshy and firm. From a dried state. It resumes Its morphological
characteristics when molsten-r The stipe is central and the
flesh firm. The gills are decurrent. The spores are smooth, white
and elliptical .

Cultivation

Since Lentlnus edodes is i wood-attacking fungus. It is

cutivated on oak and chestnut ( Castenea crenata ) logs and on
those of sore hornbean ( CarpinusT t alder ( Alnus ) . and reple
( Acer ) species. Holes are dHIled In the logs ard filled with
pure cultures of U edodes. After inoculation, the logs arc
placed In a fenced' area which the Japanese call laying yard .
The area should not be extremely humid, because humidity may
considerably reduce the production. On the contrary, the loos
should be placed In a well ventilated area. The ideal temperature
for fungal crowth Is between 24 and 28 ®C. Following mycelium
development, the logs are transferred to the so-called raising
yard . The conditions here are different the site should be
shaded and very humid. Frutting-body fontiatlon begins around the
autumn season when the ambient temperature reaches 12-20 “C.

The Inoculum Is prepared by isolating the fungus In a pure
agar culture and then transplanting to sawdust previously steri-
lized In an autoclave. The sawdust shortly becomes colonized.
This inoculum may be kept In a refrigerator at 6-7‘’C to slow down
further furgal development and fungal deterioration. The cultiva-
tion has the advantage of being practicable outdoors (Ito 1978).
Under controlled conditions, however, production may be continued
uslno the same logs ug to sU years.

CULTIVATION OF AURICULAfilA AURICULA-JUDAE

In the East, this Is regarded as a choice table mushroom. It
has as extremely wide distribution. The fungus belongs to family
Auricularlaceae. It Is rot a common cap-mushroom. The frultlno
body Is about 3-8 cm wide, smooth, elastic, sliohtly oelattnous,
ear-llke In shape* a rudimentary stipe may or may not be present.
It Is ollve-qreen. brownish, purplish in colour. The flesh is
elastic. The spores are colourless, cylindrical, smooth, and 12-
17 X 4-7 pn.

The mushroom Is Still cultivated using rudimentary decompo-
sing tree trunks (Cheng and To 1978) It seems to thrive on
Sambucus nigra but may grow on other broad-leaf species as well.
Fruitlno-boijy sections are simply Inoculated In the trunk cre-
vices and incubated In the trunk crevices and Incubated at 20-
24*C In humid conditions. Production is relatively modest.

CULTIVATION OF PHOllOTA AEGERITA

On of the best known by mushroom pickers , this fungus Is
valued for its flesh and excellent preservation. It Is found In
practically all European broad-leaf forests.

This fungus belnos to the family Aoartcaceae. The pileus is
3-10 cm In diarreter; hemispherical at first, then plano-convex:
the surface Is lloht tawny to dark brown, slightly shaded on the
margin. The gills are ochre-brown. The flesh Is firm, white,
tending to brown. The stipe Is 3-15 cm high and 1.5 cm wide:

512

Slender, sinous. firm end dense, whltlsh-coloured tending mord or
less to brown. Annulus Is fleshy and persistent. The spores ^are
ochre-brown In mass, elliptical, and reasure 8-11 x 4. 5-5. Tun.

This JTushroom Is easily grown on poplar tubs outdoor, or In
greenhouses. When cultivated In greenhouses, the anblence should
be well-Ht (without direct sun rays), and maintained at elevated
humid It. It seems to prefer almost dead tree-trunks.

The Inoculation msy be affected by using either fruit body
fragments or spores on the natural substratum. The spores should
be used in water suspension. The xsjshroom may also develop on
wood fragments (preferbly poplar) moistened and placed In plastic
bags, as previously described for PleurOtus ostretus a"d P.
erynqll .

CULTIVATIOH OF PHOLIOTA WTABllIS

Like the previous rrushroom. this species is conron all over
Europe. In relatively hot sufficiently humid climate, frultlng-
bodies occur all year round, on decoTWisino tree trunks of vari-
ous species. This imshroon Is easily confused with Arwlllarlella
HieHea and some Hypholoma toxic soecles.

This fungus oeings to the family, Agarlcaceae, The plleus
has a diameter of 4-8 cm. flesh, convex, rather than plane.
Slightly umbllicate. smooth and nolst. with brownish colouring.
The gills are yellowish than cinnamon-brown. Flesh is white. The
stipe Is 3-5 cm high and about 0.5 cn wide hollow, slender,
coloured like the cap. (t has anannulus and is scly at the base.
The spores are oval, yellow-ochre In colour, 6-8 x 4-5um.

The same cultivation technloues as described for Phollota
aegerlta are valid. Its valuable characteristics merit more re-
search on growth in media and controlled conditions.

CULTIVATION OF PHOLIOTA NAhEKO

Among the wood-attcking fungi P. nameko Is one of the most
cultivated In Japan alnq with lentlnus edooes, Flarrnullna velutl-
pes. Pleurotus ostreatus and VoTvariel'la voivceT I Nameko refers
"lo the viscosity of the cap wnicn distinquVshes the species. This
characteristic, in addition to it appetizing aroma and flavour,
makes it a choice delicacy In Japan, it is common on dead broad-
leaf tree trunks but its oistributlon seems associated with Faqus
crenata on which it grows well.

TRis fungus belongs to the family Stropharlaceae. The plleus
is convex than plane at maturity; hazel-brown at the centre and
lighter at the edges. It Is covered by a nxjcilagenous substance
and measures 15 cm In diameter. The gills vary in length white or
yellowish then tending to rust-yellow or yellow-ochre. The stipe
is central, 3-7 on high and Z on wide, presents an annulus and
its colour is lighter than that of the plleus. The spores are

513

elliptic, truncate at the apex and measure 5-6 x 2.5-3un. yellow-
ochre or dark brown coloured In mass.

P. narreko may be cultivated on broad-leaf trees or conifer
sawduTf, sawdust from Faous crenata. Ouercus acutlsslma ^>r-
rata, Carplnus, Castanopis, Comus. teltlT etc., are particularly
rcoimende'cC addition of rice iiusks is suqqested The rixture
Should be abundantly dampened. Temperature Is also important and
depending on the strains used, should ranae around 19®C for h&st
development. Light also determines frultino-body production a
lack of which causes malfcrmatlon. Stuffy air rich In caruon
dioxide inhibits orowth. Thus, the rrushroom reoujres ventilation.
The inoculum is eatly prepared on conmon aoar artificial mediun
with a peptone base. The pure culture is inoculated an the saw-
dust of previously sterilized bottles and the colonized substra-
tum then Inoculated on the sawdust bed of laroe cases

CULTIVATION OF ARMILLAftlELLA VFLLEA

This cornnon Europen mushroom, valued for food and oreserva-
tlon In oil, grows on broad- leaf and conifer tree-trunks, formno
fniltlng-body bunches, sometimes In abudance.

Many authors consider it a parasite of forest plants The
fungal hyphae. gathered In rhizomes uoto several cm thick, penet-
rate between the bark and wood provoklno considerable alteration.
Its pathogenesis, however, ts probably most seriously maniffstud
on the plant s root system, other authors consider it capable of
invading only worn-out olants and those already Infected by other
pathogens. Still others, consider It as a saprophyte able to
attack only dead pints.

It belongs to family Aaaricaceae. The olleus is A-7cm in
diameter: hemispherical than plano-convex, sliohtly unbonate.
more or less Intense tawny-yellow, brownish, areenlsh orey. red-
Ish brown, with small brownish scales in the middle of the sur-
face. The ollls are whitish, then becomes yellowish, brownish, or
present dirty strains. The flesh is white and flm. The stipe is
5-15 cm high and 1-3 cm wide: its flesh is firm and fibrous. The
colour varies from brownish to yellow-brown. The annulus Is bio,
persistent, strile and whitish. The spores are white In mass,
elliptical and 7-iO X 5-7um.

It is easily cultivated on conron aoar tnqdla. Aoar cultures
may be Inoculated on trees In noor conditions, reaching the wood
by cutting the bark at the base. The rushroon rapidly colonizes
the host tissues and then develops abundant and characteristic
clustered frultlng-bodles. Results of attenots to cultivate on
controlled organic substrata are not known.

CULTIVATION OF TREKELLA FUCIFORMIS

Since 1500, T^ fuclfonnls has been recognized in China for

514

Its ^eallna onjoerties. The Chinese however, consider It rore as
a food source and Indeed one of the west delicate which nature
offers. It Is also a wood attacklnq funous and grows well on dead
trunks and branches of many trees.

It belongs to the family Tretrellceae. The frultlng-body has
a series of lobed gills with recurved margins. Each lobe measures
5-15 X 4-i2cni the consistency is gelatinous. The basldlocarp
underside enlarges Into a yellowish haploid layer that Invades
the tree bark. The basldlospores are subqlobose. 4-7.5 x 6.8-
1 1 6im.

It is saprophytic, distributed widely on a number of tropi-
cal species. Inoculum preparation Is one of the most Important
aspects of Its cultivation. It thrives on agar medium but Isola-
tion of aseptic sections Is difficult. Pure culture Is Inoculated
on moistened sawdust containing 20% rice husks previously steri-
lized in an autoclave. The mixture Is incubated at 24°C until
colonised, the kept at 15*C for 2-3 weeks before inoculating the
substratum. The latter is composed of broad-leaf tree fragments.
An early bark detachment, from the wood used for the substratum
must, however, be avoided to impede contamination of other fungi.
The wood should be sufficiently moist to favour fungal growth.

After inoculation, the trunks are placed In the laying
yard where the mycelium develops. Growth and above all wood
prepartion are essential for an abundant production. Sufficient
humidity of the laying yard guarantees a oood colonization,
while excessive humidity favours the development of competitive
fungi and parasites. The temperature of the laying yard should
range between 20-25*C, The optimum temperature is 22®C.

The tree-trunks In the laying yard should be placed In a
vertical, a lightly Inclined or criss-crossed position to permit
proper fruiting, alr-clrcolatlon, and space utilization. The
trunks become colonized within 35-45 days. Thereafter, the trunks
are transferred to the raising yard as the frultlng-body requires
an increase in moisture. Humidity Is raised to 80-85% by frequent
watering. The temperature should also Increase to 22-27®C. Fruit-
ing begins nearly two months after Inoculation and continues for
7 months. The frultlng-bodles are easily dried, and prserved.

CULTIVATION OF STROPHARIA RUGOSO ANNULATA

It has been cultivated in Central Europe, especially in the
German Democratic Republic and Poland, for many years.

It b“lQoqs. ta famity cm,. Vfft
surface glossy but not moist; colcnjr varies from dark yellow to
cream to brown to brick red. The veil shreds may remain on the
pileus, later becoming whitish spots. The veil Is white and
filamentous. The flesh Is white and the gills, violet-grey in
colour. The stipe is 15cm high, dense and white. Large striped
ring is white. The spores bear a gennlnatlve pore, are dark

SIS

violet-brown, 10-12x 6.8Mn>

The mushroom qrows well on a stinole grain substratum. The
straw should be whole, l.e. unaltered by fungi, well washed and
contain 70-75% humidity. This Is obtained by soaVlnq the straw in
water for 48 hours. The excess water Is drained, the straw Is
placed in beds, In about 25 cm deep layers which are pressed and
the fungus Is then Inoculated.

The Inoculum Is obtained from fungal spores, aseotlcally
Isolated on artificial agar medium. The mycelium Is then trans-
ferred onto ground and sterllited straw in Roux bottles. Once
colonized (from 5-6 weeks at 26*C In a thermostat), the straw may
be used to Inoculate the bed (500 q Inoculum per 1.5 m of bed
culture). The inoculum Is distributed as early as possible on
top of the straw and covered with another layer of ground straw
5-6 cm deep. Within 3-5 weeks, the substratum should be entirely
colonized and should be covered with 5 cm of soli. This cover
determines the transformation of the mycelium from the vegetative
phase to the reproductive phase. Sieved soil, possibly obtained
from broad-leaf or conifer woods is recommended. Otherwise, a
mlxuture of humus soil (caleareous) at 30-501 peat moss is recom-
mended, This last layer must also be moistened to 70-75% satura-
tion and sterilized either with heat or layered in pits with 40%
formalin. Humidity must be maintained by dally watering. Produc-
tion begins within a week and lasts for several months.

To reach a significant production, S. reguso annulata requi-
res particular environmental conditions, fTcially or
naturally heated growing areas should reach a temperature of 24-
27®C. A temperature below 20*C blocks the formation of frultlng-
bodles, while one above 30*C exhausts the mycelium in a short
time, favours infection and diminishes production. Substratum
humidity Is also Important and should remain above 70%. It should
be regulated by openings which avoid vapour condensation on the
substratum.

SIGNIFICANCE OF EOlBlE MUSHROOM TECHNOLOGY TO
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The Importance of edible mushrooms as a source of protein
for the developing countries Is very significant. The substrates
for their production are easily available and the techniques of
production of several edible species could be convcnlerlly Integ-
rated in the farming practices of the rural farmers. The spent
compost after mushroom production Is a Qood manure. It has been
observed that the transfer of the mushroom production technology
to rural farmers may take many years, sometime decades. There Is
no doubt that the incorporation of waste management practices for
mushroom production in secondary school curricula would hasten
the process of technology transer in this sector.

The case of India could be usefully used to Illustrate the

S16

point. There are several specialised laboratories doing R40 in
mushroom science such as ^ose at the lARI, Delhi. Solan and
Srinagar. Over 200 scientists are engaged in this field all over
India. Yet the total production of edible fungi In India does not
exceed 1,500 tons. Since the technology of mushroom production Is
quite simple for several of the species and since production of
this commodity does not corpete with fertile land utilization, it
would be of paramount importance to introduce this technology In
environmental education to increase the awareness In this area
and as a result protien production for human consumption.

REFERENCES

Artta. 1. (1978). Phollota nameko. In S.T. Chanq, and W.A. Hayes
(Eds) The Biology and "cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Aca-
demic Press, N.Y.

Eels, P.O. (1978). In S.T- Chang and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology
artd Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Academic Press. N.Y.

Camevali, A. 0979). Un fungo coltlvabile: la Stropharla rugoso
annullata . Hlcol Ital . 2: 29-38.

Chang, b.i. u972). The Chinese Mushroom. The Chinese University,
Hong Kong.

Chang. S.T. (1978). Voivarlella volva cea. In S.T. Chang, and H.A.
Hayes (Eds) The Biology and cultivation of Edible Mushrooms.
Academic Press. N.Y.

Chen. P.C. and Hou. H.H. (1978). Tremella fuclfonnts . In S.T.
Chang, and W.A, Hayes (Eds) The eiojogy and tultivatlon of
Edible Mushrooms, Academic Press, N.Y.

Cheng, S. and Tu, C.C, (1978). Auricularia so. In S.T, Chang, and
W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. Academic Press, N.Y,

Delmas, J. (1978). Cultivation In Western Countries: Growing in
caves. In S.T. Chang, and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology and
Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Academic Press, N.Y.

Edwards, H.L. (1978). Cultivation in Western Countries: Growing
in houses. In S.T. Chang, and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology
and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Academic Press, N.Y.

Ferrl, F. (1972a). Prove dl cultivazfone dl aJcunI IsolamentI dl
Pleurotus estreatus. Quel. Micol. Ital. 1: 11

Perri, F. {1972b). Ulterior! prove dl coltivazione del Pleurotus
ostreatus. Hlcol. Ital. 3: 61,

Ferrl'i FTTT???). Inseminazlone dl Pleurotus erynaii var. ferula
in pieno campo. Micol. Ital. 6: 42-46.

Ferrl, F. (1979). la coltivazione dei fungi del genera Pleurotus.
Economia Trentina 1* 60.

Hayes, W.A. and Nalr, N.6. (19751. The cultivation of Aaarlcus
bisporus and other edible mushrooms. The Filar^entous Fun^
(Smith, J.E. and Berry, D.E., eds) 1* 212-248. Wiley, N.Y.

Ito. T. (1978). Cultivation of Lentinus edodes. In S.T. Chanq,
and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology and Cultivation of Edible
Hushroons. Academic Press, N.Y.

Kurteman, R.H. Jr. (1978). Coprinus fiiretarlus . In S.T. Chang,
and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biolb^ and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. Academic Press, N.V.

Steunkraus. K.H. and Cullen. R.E. (1973). Newspaoer food for
thought and food for the stomach (Pleurotus). New York s
Food and Life Sciences 11(A) 5-7.

Srudyga. K. (1970). Stropharia ruqoso-annul lata . In S.T. Chang,
and W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology~and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. Academic Press, n.y.

Toncmjra. H. (1978). Flarrulina velutipes. In S.T. Chanq, and W.A.
Hayes (Eds) The Biology and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms.
Academic Press. N.Y.

Vedder, P.J.C. (1978). Cultivation. In S.T. Chang, and W.A. Hayes
(Eds) The Bloloqy and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Aca-
demic Press. N.Y.

Zadrazil, F. (1978). Cultivation of Pleurotus. In S.T. Chanq, and
W.A. Hayes (Eds) The Biology and cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. Academic Press, N.Y.

EVALUATION AND MONITORING OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMMES WITH REFERENCE TO ENERGY ISSUE
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

B.C. S. nrd M.M. Biswas*

IMTROOUCTJON

Th» C3rc*pt "if ETwlr^no^Ptal fx3uc«tl3n arew as « r^ault 9f
the envirarmnePtal ffovemert that oalred atrenoth dunno the 19608
and 1970o. The widenlno sf the erwirare^ntal ni^vemept oradually
broucht three developments pf majpr impartance

1 Scientific and nature protectisn camp^nentn orew taoether
under the influence sf professional ecolooists.

2. Appreciation sf the envlromienr orew in many countries 9ut-
sldr Europe and North America.

3 , The character of the approach to envirotire-nt chanoe-d Jeadino
to a much broader concept of the natural envlrorment* land water,
mirerala, all livlno oroantsms and life processes, atmosphere and
the climate, polar ice cars and the remote ocean deeps and to the
human situation both at the level of whole communities and the
individual needs for housinoand livino, and emphasised the
relationship between man-made and natural ervironnent .

This third development had a broader and scientifically more
sephiatlested perception of the relationship between man and
• nviromtent. It did not restrict itself only to the earlier
nature protection movement hut went beyond it and became concern-
ed with technolooy, social oroamisations and in particular , with
the way the population influenced the use and conservation of
natural resources on the around that the violation of ecolocical
principles had reached the point where, at best the quality of
life 'was threatened and at worst, the lono-term survival of
humanity could he imperilled.

The UNESCO and the U. N. Cnvirorynent Proarainne developed an
Internationa] enviroment education prooramme which alms at pro-
motlna exchanoe of inforwstion and experiences In the field of
envirorrnental education. Envlrormental Education courses were
desioned from primary to university levels. But the courses and
the educational approaches differed in each country as the envl>
rormental issues were different. At the beoinnlno the courses in
enviromental education were not very popular. The interest
seemed to orow from the year 1979. These courses in developlno
countries because of the Jack of employment opportunities. Public
participation in evnviromntal issues and enviromental awareness
increased mostly in wealthier and better-educated populations,
ard were stimulated by books and films as well as newspapers.

•Institute of Science, Bilueation and Culture, calcuCCa-ry, India

520

in the context of olobal picture and national ejoals. The aecond
catecTOry is meant for the people who are at present takina deci-
sienst executing the plans and proorsnineB in all spheres of life.
This should be a combination of top-to-bottwn and bottom-to-top
approach. The third eateoory is meant for the people in villaoesi
the vast majority of whom are farners, waoe-earners who are
mostly poor and illiterate. This approach should be from bottom-
to-top. In the third catecrory, evaluation and monitorina process
have been exemplified with special reference to eneroy problem.
However, all ervirorr'ental problems for the rural p*eople may be
handled in the sane manner.

Formal Enviromertal Education, Evaluation and Monitorino

The evaluation and monitonro system of envirorrrertal educa-
tion should be based and developed on the basis of coals broadly
stated above. In cases where ervironmental education has been
introduced, it is really difficult to evaluate the actual chancms
that have taken place in the curricula of different education
systems, classroom teachmo methods and teechino materials ard
their effects upon students. Put there is erouch evidence iniiea-
t. f r the irvolvert rt of common people In public decisions concer-
ni no ePN’irormentsl ouality.

The environrental education at the pre-primary and primary
levels should concern with croup aetivitiee. Some informal trairv-
ina should be eiven in personal hyciere, ard problems of food ard
water cortamination. Formal envirormontal education has been
introduced as a subject in primary school curricula in some
deNclopinc ountries.

Students at the secondary level are usually receptive ard
ctronoly moivated, and are capaeble of assimilatina envirorrientol
education that is value-oriented, cormiunity-orierted , ard concer-
ned with human wcll-beinc, Cxpernnental ard field studies may be
included as a apart of the secondary school enviromental educa-
tion procrartOTc*. The secondary school enviromental education
procraimie. The secondary school courses should emphasise out-of-
school activities, problem-solvira and cotrwurty activitis related
to enviromental problems and should concentrate on basic ervi-
romertal facts such as ecolooy, resource distribution, popula-
tion dynamics, ard problems of hunoer and starvation. At the
secordary level, one additional subject such as Mathematics or
Biolooy is taucht. Amono such optionals ore subject entitled
■•Enviromt ntol ocy" (Enviromental Sciencesl may be included.
General curricula have also to be developed in all subjects
fittino enviromental issues wherever suitable.

In particular scierice subjects while treatino a topic or
chapter, the related enviromental issues are required to be sta-
ted just as the experiments, illustrations, derivation of formula
and applications are treated under distirwt subtitle. Similar

527

procedure may be adapted also »r» tbo htsmaruties. ^estiane also
rust be set fra^ enviramert tapics reoularly in tVie exaninatian
to Mke its study effective. The omx'ersity-level educatiar is
larcely aired at filliro jsb vacancies , the hici'er education
systea has, therefore, to be narrowly vocatioral. Mary universi-
ties ray however, offer courses that ain at pronotino envirorr-en-
tal awareness, ard there is a trend towards jnereasino these
types of courses. £ub]eet ratter or envirotrr^ntal education is
to be Grouped urder broad topics such as enercy, eeoloey and
social systems to reduce the fratnentary nature of the course.
Postc'aduate education in envirorr>ent in several universities in
developino countries should offer courses in

1. ervirorrental plannino and resource developr«rt

2 . envirorrrertal irpact studies

3. teacher trainino

4. eeoloeieal disturbarces ard em*irorrx»ntal deeradation

5. system analysis arrf operations research techniques for
erviroiT'ertal systems

6. irvestioation of various pollutants and exotic aoents

Even in the first Decree Course one corbination paper on

•Enviromentolocy' ray be introduced by the universities on the
sa-e footino as Physics, Cher,strv, Sioloey, Psycholoey, Educa-
tion, Socioloey etc. For this, appropriate eurriculun has to be
developed and booVs are to be wTritten.

At Master's Decree level a provision ray be rads to study
enviroment in more details.

In employment also, weicbtaoe should be civen to the canli-
dates with knowledoe and experience about envirotrent.

At the professioral level such as Law, Medicine and Enciree-
rino also, ewiromental education has to be introduced. The
na^or air of environ^rtal education at this level should be to
develop specialised krowledoe and technical skills in students on
envirorr'ertal issues.

Lawyers are increasinely assurino a role in ervirorrertal
issues. Appropriate courses should be introduced not only to
protect enviroiT-ental laws but also to create awareness to the
reeds of irtroducano mTadern laws.

In all brafxrhes of encineerino suchas civil, electrical,
nechanical , chemical, rr<etal lurcica] , rubber and plastics, approp-
riate ervirorrental issues related to the discipline concerned
should be introduced. Howeier, in mary universities Environmental
Encineoriro courses have already been introduced.

Just as a medical student has to study Jurispruderxe at ore
Staoe of the course, he should also study a short course on
Efvironrent related to the medical field. Such a course has to be
properly desicred ard developed.

At polytechnc level a suitable erviromental course has to
be provided in the cvmculw-i.

Ervirorrental education proera-r«s are to be introduced fo*-

b^th trv-e^rrvico «rd pro-ecrvieo trainina of teachers.

Semi-fcrmal EwirorTnontal Educatisn, Evaluation arri Monitorino

It 16 veil-known that in the inpleinertatisn of national plan
an 3 proqramme, the pol icy-wakers, executives and adrtinistratofe
play a vital role. It la, therefore, necessary to educate such
croups of people in the envlroiwental issues. The approach to
this education should be front the top-to-bottom in the context of
national coal on one hand and from bottom-to-top from the stand-
point of conwon tnan on the other. Administrators, executives and
policy-makers Of all national and state establashments, autono-
mous oroanisations, private and public industries and the like
should oet envirormertal education.

The proa-atTP>e of education may be of short duration ranoino
from ore day to a few weeks reoularly instead of a Iona duration
at ore stretch. It may include short courses, workshop, seminar
with field trips and problem-sovlino sessions. The course should
be desioned with specific objectives to identify and solve envi-
romental problems such as eneraj* issue, pollution, family plan-
nino, health, transport, etc., especially related to individual
ercamsations.

Executives down from block level throueii district level to
state level must oet education an environment, and especially an
the methods of nonfomal education problems of the rural people.

Officials can brine their problems to such orientation pree*
raime for discussion, suooestion and solution, broadly speakino
for makina interactions with other parti cipanta .

It may also be noted that the betterment of employmert
position of such officials should be tacoed with the nature of
their iTJvOlvement in the enviromvnt proorartme of the oroamsa-
tion concerned.

In this connection it may be toted that every industry has a
Safety Department and Inspectors visit the industries to check if
the safety measures are strictly followed. Henceforth such Safety
Departeients may be entrusted with enviroinental issues or sueh
departmnts may be reramed as Enviroimental Oepartanents which
include the functions of safety and must observe erviromentaJ
issues strictly. An yearly award may be declared by the Govern-
ment for judeang the industries for maintainine beat enviroirnen-
ta] conditions. Similarly punishments should also be there for
violatlno envirormertal standards.

Nonformal Envirorrnental Education, Evaluation & Monitorino

The envirormertal education for rural people is examined here
with specific example of alternative eneroy use. The eudcation of
the rural people Is an extomely difficult task. To most of the
people the idea of alterruitive ereroy system, say biooas is quite

S23

new. Even if they accept the idea, they may rot praetlae It.

Rural Ecsrotnlc Structure

There exists arcat Ircquality amcno the rural population in
develpplno countries like India. Consideration of such Inequality
spectrum is important in determinlno who can adopt new eneroy
system such as biooas. Ham property In rural areas is land. At
the lowest level of inequality spectrumn are the landless having
a hut to live and form the major labour force in aorlcultural or
industrial field. There is a croup above this lardleaa posseaalng
one or two plots of lands and a few animals. They also live
mostly on their labour. At the uppermost level are the wealthy
and powerful landholders possessino laroe number of animals.
These landholders aometlmca have moderately educated or well-
educated children who take employment In the roarby developed
places or towns, in between them there Is a heterogenoous middle
level croup which possesses land» animals, small or medium size
business or shops and has fairly-educated, employed or sometitnes
unemployed children. Tho upper level landholders often coordinate
various croups and beenmo very powerful In decision making.

Tn this broad inequality spectrum, the scope for tho poorer
to adopt any alternative eneroy scheme and benefit from it is
rare, specially if it eofcerhs financial, comltmert. Per that
matter any ervirormental education in the lower part of the
inequality spectrum, is hopelessly miserable. Control over the
land and animal and other related material resources, financial
ability and social influence are all in the hands of the people
of the upper part of the inequality spectrum. It is, therefore,
these croups who can adopt any alternate ereroy scheme such as
biooas system when they get proper education. It may incidentally
be mentioned that it is these croups who have taken advantaoc
from tTOvernnental plans meant for the poorer section in the past,
making their relative position stronoer ard sometimes leavino tho
poorer section in more bad condition. Any envirormental proQrauTne
must keep this rural power structure in mird while formulating
any scheme for the rural develootnent.

Perception of Ereroy Problem or an Envirormertal Issue

with deforestation, nutrition depletion, population crowth
and the imbalance of ecosystem- ereroy problem of the poor is
very clear to the scientists and policy-makers. Put this percep-
tion cannot bo clear to the populatiora in General who are affec-
ted by this problem. The poor can collect fuel in one form or the
other, sometimes free of cost, sometimes at a minimum cost with-
out beiro aware of or carlnc for the erv’irOTT'ental problems
ineludlnc eneroy issue. Even if they are made aware of the ereroy
problem, they will not show or are not in a position to show

irtorcst as they have- r-arff inmadiat^ prabJc»n’S eueh as warkjro far
faad. The pear-landless farner when able ta collect sa-ne iranoy
wiJ] purchase an apiraj »r a piece af Jard or bath than t» spend
narpy ta build blaoas dioester. It ts not passible far them ta
realise the lane-term benefit. The wealthy seetian af the rural
papulation can only have the mears ta pravide marey for ary new
ereroy system when they are praperly educated ard made aware of
the entire evtuatian ard are wade aufftciertlv motivated. This is
the same situation for arv other envarotrrental issue.

Tradition

Traditions are very important in the behaMour pattern of
mankind in oeneral. Traditions are deeply raated xn the way af
lifei especially Of rural ropulatlons. They plav vital role ir
the cultural intetrity af the ca'^iunity. It is very difficult to
introduce anythino alternative contrary to the traditional prac-
tice. Chanoine the traditional practices eien bv law may lead to
many bad effects. Therefore, any new schemes tr^wt be estrome’y
attractive and yet the habits mav chance %erv slowlv. Aoain, the
upper-level rural people «-ho ha%e educated children employed in
towns and interact with the outside are rather likelv ta chance
the habits more cuiekJy. Howe\er, the tradition effect must be
considered in the education procrainnes.In India, the use of cow
dune for biooas eeneration may however not fird obstruction. Cow
dune 18 extensively used in rural India and is considered sacred.
But the use of human excreta will be vehemently oecosed.

Cost and Benefit

People take a decision on a specific matter and practise it
on the basis Of cost and benefit therefrom. Aoain, there are
variations in the cost-benefit approach m various rural economic
croups due to variation*? of resources ard the benfit threby
returned. One of the major problem's conrerntno alternative u'ie of
eneroy is that Iona term and indirect benefits are rot perceived
by an individual in rural area ard are sometimes covered bv
immediate return.

Another aspect in introducino a tk'v onerov scheme for root-
ina porcess is the role played bv women in India, Women are
primarily involved in collectina or seleetiro fuel rgr the eook-
ina process. It is their opinion in the matter of rookinc wi^b a
particular fuel that plays deeisiio role in the family. ren.Tal)v
their role has to he considered in all rural environrental
Bcheffies .

Implementation Proaramitie

for rural people, all emrirOfwertal issues for development

such as irriOTticn, trarsporti aariculturci population control,
forestry, nutrition, health, sanitatisr, etc., are to bo tiSci
tooether ar*3 efforts shoulcJ bo dven in a packaco in entirely
nonformal way.

In order to tnako a proaraHwe successful for rural develop-
ment, the bottom-to-top approach has to be followed. In the
bottom-to-top approach people’s needs are assessed by the people
themselves anJ not by an external aocncy. This is possible only
when people are educated to perceive the problem. However, this
IS not easy to achieve. It concerns helpiner the people to solve
their own problems. Ineffectiveness in many of the oovernment
rural plans is due to the top-to-bottora approach in which case
people's needs are estimated by an outside aocncy sittira in a
distant room, even sometimes never visltino the locality and the
people for whom the procranwo is prepared. That is why, people's
participation and response to the dovelocment proorarTine have not
been available in the past. Only a few from the upper level who
are always searchira for an opportunity from the croverrrent plan,
Cet the benefit.

In order to implenont a proQrantTte, there should be Rural
Development Centres or Community Centres around several vilJaocs
where deraonatratiop of the bioeas system ard explanation of other
OTTvironpertal issues such as health, sanitation, population cont-
rol should be conducted. The participation and trainino of local
people in such centres aie to be oroanised.

In the hotcom-to-top approach Field services/Coirmurity ser-
viees/Envirgmental services have to be created. These service
people should eorduet the cocnnunity centres and liase with the
people at the bottom on one hand and with administrators and
policy-makers on the other, and monitor the enviromental procra-
irrres includiro enercy issues.

There should be women in this service endre and local women
should also participate in the nonformal education ord trairinq
scheme.

The Field service people tooether with the local Creined
people should visit different localities and record informations
on the traditions, habits, economic conditions, customs of fuel
collection, nature of fuel used and enviromtental issues for
people of each economic stratvn. They should also study the
conatrainta for use of any alternative enercy source or adoptino
similar environwsr'tal proaramme. Attempt should be made to create
the perception of crercy problem in the peple of each economic
level. Women in the family should be directly contacted durino
such visit and their opinion should be aven weirfvtaoe.

The above way form the first phase of eneroy education or
enviromental education echen>o. However this should be the conti-
nuous process and constant interaction with people is necessary.
In the second phase technical aspects have to be considered. Ml
such informacion 'should be coomunicated to the administrators,

526

arri p3licy-«k»r* fsr the latter** apprai»al anS policy forrule-
tioB and al«9 eonitoring the pTogra=r». in each Z9rm arwnd th*
certre, technical facllitle* for building altarmtlra erergy
aystea Mt to be searched. If thl* is not possible, the centre
itself should develop thes. Even the leprovesert over th* exist-
IDO cooking stove* in respect of efficiency and *con*y for beat
production has to be considered for the people of lw#*r strata
v*‘o will rot te in a position to switch on to ary alternatlee
systes. When people are acctsstored to the ese of an improved
cookino stove, they eay be further inJoced to the nse of core
i r p rove d cooklno systes. This is also the eethod of ehandno the
habits of the people in sits areas and of Is-provino the physical
conditions in the slca.

Kepair and cairtenance of the new enercy systea plant have
also to be arranoed in the local place and if this is not
possible it has to be dor* In the centre itself at the bedmio,.

In the third phsse.crdit systes froes the local bark or froo
the eovernrert aoency have to be studied and for each econode
level this is to be appropriately decided *o that people when
cotivated can svtlch on t»l new erercyy systea with the financial
help. Finance systea s'^ould be checked and araraed such that
people of lower ecor9*ie o'oup cet Baxmrt bereflt.

C overnaert a»rcy has to assess froe tine to tire th« natter*
of proovss ead* in the proe-asae and check, eortrol, aodify ard
oriert th* proca^e for irproveaert of th* *rtire proeews.

Er/irofrert Certnss should be run such that it can create
•cploynert fo* the local people: romnally educated boys and
Girls, local eraftscen, seeiskilled or urekilled worker*. Thus,
the entire proc aa a c 8*‘9uld Generate also ecployoort. Such local
ecployrert otfortarttles will also help jn xr tiod ueing ervlron-
rental education in the locality.

It 18 likely th^t thie cpoer level rural people havino educa-
ted service holders will -eccept the rev erercy systea c ore gulck-
ly. In every locality there ere persons who are well-respected or
w*>o are taken as rodcla by wry local people. Such persons are to
be inducted first to accept th* new erercy systea or other ervi-
romert proffarces. If a few fa=ilies in each ecoroeic stratsr*
are iritially induced to accept the new enercy systea or follow
an er'/irsreert mes-aree, it will o^adually induce otd*r faallies
in the correspondiro econscjc croup.

cc».c:.usiws

rirally it Bay be stated that for effecive irpleeertation of
ary ervirorrertal proerarrie or for irtroducino ary new enercy
cystea there should be a variety of approaches sooe of which arc
stated in the text. The irpleacrtation effort should be based on
appropriate evaluation am eoritonre activities related to the
follwn^nc General pre-con3itor»r

1 . Appropriacenes: an/ envixoiiviental ayatem or eneroy ayatan
ehould be apprpriate for the local cordltiona.

2. Attract venees: the aystetn siuat bo attractive to the
potential usere.

3. Affordability: the ayatetn should be affordable to a wide
section of the population.

4. Availability: the eyatee should be avilable along with
the neceeaary Infornationa and ayatem back-upa.

These four A'a ahould be reotembered in handling envionnontal
prebletrs.

In developing countries, the basic regulrements like feed,
clothing, shelter and medicine for wide sector of the population
are needed to be fulfilled. Therefore, implementation of environ*
mental proeramme would reguire long time. The progrees will be
very alow. It cannot be achieved by makino a few patch works here
and there, A eyatematic approach throuch every facet of life has
to be initiated and euatained for long period of time with deter-
mination from those who are invovled in it.

INSTITUTION AND COWUNITY BASED EHVIRONNENTAL EDUCATION

G D Kabra and Lalita Kabra* •*

fast fffowth of populntloi I" re^po-wlhle fnr

deoletiol of titural resource^ ti lat^r part of 20th century. A
erowi concern is bein* fleplctecl hy th^ i«i«s rtwrtlii about various
aspects of such probl^ro JlVe pollution of water port air, ciecav
of natural «urrounHi nffS ao! Iieritajre, los« of %filrt lif<» a-rl so
on. But the traHltional outlook anrl practices as well as hard
realities of life an-l mrxtern civilisation force the people to
continue the activities vtiich ore hamful to the environment at!
to the future veneration in the lone run. ^one concernetl awl
imael native (rroups have taken up the cause of savine the environ-
ment anrl creatine awareness amone the masses. *Qiipko' movement
in tttaraWTanri ani recently its counterpart in Karnataka (Alvares
1084) are exemplary action procranmes «upportaYl by wcur^n and
youth, however there are larce areas where auch enviro*»mntal
awareness and efforts <ki nr>t exist. Still a lone way has to be
covered for j'pnlvinc siteable eoatnunity to conserve the nstufe's
sifts for future eeneratioas.

Certainlv, envlronnental education can*nt be spread only by
mats media. Hiere are the findings that any action or innrsvation
is adopted at ma«n scale tdien the mass media puhlicitv is supper-
tetl bv vanoAi* local influentiels a*ri rroups. Kat* reported a
variety of studies which ladicates that people are not easily
pursuaded to chan?* their opinions and behaviour... ...i nfluences

fretn the ma«s media are intercepted by interpersonal networks of
conrmnieation and macte rrore or less effective thereby. In India
and particularly with reference to emrironnental diversity, the
effectiveress of mass medio Is also clrcumecribed by rrtjltlpliclty
of dxalectn/laaeuajrcs and location-s|iecificlty of our problems.
Takine into consjd«»ratlon this limitation of mass eormuai cation
for the enviroTTiental education for potentials exlstlnz at the
leveljaf various Institutions axl cormwnitY oreanisatlon.

‘^hool as a Ra«e

From various fierspectives school is an important base centre
for environnental education and action. School® are established
ia all pnrts of the country. Millions of students provide an
opportunitx to spreafi the messace of '•ature's conservation if

*v B Rural Institute, Vdaipur, India

•*v S c s Teachers College, Maipur, India

530

trees on marpi’Bl laTl. Duriwt geststlnn period such tribala |»t
financial assistance spread fTver three vears accordinjf to the
survival rate of the plants. Il rural and tribal areas the bioitas
plants and srmkelpss enerjfy efficient clmlhas are aleo beinjc
subsidised Some voluntary orjrsnisations in Udaipur district are
also functlonJne as catalysts to popularise these proffrantnes.
Still there is scope that with the cornbl n<'d help of mass media
and village based tnstitullopa various aspects of eivlrontetital
education mav be taken up so that comrsinity is actively involved.

An effort to involve villaiic Institutions In MacDiya Pradesh
was made in the form of 'Prolect Karivall'. In this project
treeles hillocks at various places were taken up for establishing
forest wliere initial expenrilture Is provided by the jrovernnent
and coordiMtlon of various vttlaxe Institutions is souxtit for
ochievinc the purpose.

Resenreh Institutions and Industrial Houses

Various above mentioned proirraimies should be assessed with
tie perspective of Involvlnir villajre institutions and comrunlty.
Tills will Rive a continuous support to environnental concern. In
tribal region on action prorramne Is essential in th» view of
depleting ml mp forest produce which are belnjr exploited continu-
ously without concern for their consrvatlon and sustainable rteve-
Inpnent. Here, the role of research institutions is inevitable.
This requires flow of eomnunlcatlon between research Institution
and local coarrunlty on one hand and amonjtst various research anil
extension Instltutiom on the other. Priority has to he accnmiel
to survey and research on minor fruits and monor forest produce
which though economically or commercially may be 'minor' but the>
are Important from the point of traditional uses and nutritional
and medicinal applications.

Industrial houses also can play an effective role towards
environnental developnent. A wllllnirness is also expressed by
Federation of Indian Chambers of Cwirorce and Industry (FICCI) in
respect of drliiclnj; water supply system and sanitation in rural
and backward region. There is an inmedlate need to integrate
envirormental programea with the local apeclflc conditions. To
achieve this, research institutions atxl Integrated strategies on
the basis of field studies and discussions with village institu-
tions and coimiunlty.

Cultural and Aesthetic Outlook

Indian tradition is rich with cultural and aesthetic pers-
pective coneenial to environnental conservation Sacred groves
around shrines and religious places are found and protected
Ttierc IS richness of citation of varirxjs plants and creepers in
the pootrv of great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Even a i>ark 1» being

KNOWLEDffi, AniTUDE AND PRACTICE OF FAHILY PLANNING
IN A HARYANA VILLAGE COMMUNITY

KaT»BbiT SiriRh, R K Rinie and M L. Sharaa*

XMia A dAveloplK; couitry has 2.k percent of tforld'e latl
where 15 5 pereeit of the wtsrld'e populAtlo*i resides. A baby bora
after every o*» ajri a half secoid adds tweaty one mlllioi child-
ren In I’ylla every yenr which la ecrulvalent to Australia's pocu-
latlon If the current etete of affairs contliies all the achie-
vements aceoe^llshed ao far aa a result of planned develotirent
efforts would be nullified Even from a purely eeoTordc staad-^
point expenditure on population control la one of the iR>st
profitable forms of lortstme-rt for India fHuxley 195**).

This problem was recognised In early fifties and as aresult
of It family plannl'« procrarnne was started by the Gover*»iwit of
India in 1952. Till 19^3 the approach was cliMeal and afterward
extension education approach was followed and a separate Depart-
ment of Family Planning was created la April 1966. A eongjrehea-
alve populatioa policy was e*Macisted o!dy la April. 1976 and
family plaanifts prerrairme eontlnued to retain its position as one
of the malor nstlonal priorities. But the appeali'nr fact is that
lasplta of various iiouts in tems of finance, men and materials,
the fertility rate eoatlajes to be relatively hi|th.

Human fertility behaviour is coaditleaed to a larra extent
by a set of social economnic and psyeholerical factors (Pareek
and Kothandapaal 1969. Kotegirl and Tearo 1972. and Durima 1973)
lut little attention has been paid so far to these aspects. More-
over for longterm assessment and planning such vital Information
is necessary (Seal 1977) Vith these aspects la view, this ndcro-
level empirical study was conducted In 19dl-fi2 with the folloow-
Ing specific obiectlves

I) to assess the kOTwledge attitude and practice of family
planning in a village connunitv

II) to trace out the relationship of diflerent sclo-economic and
personal factors with knowledge attitude and adoption of family
plaanlrig.

^c^^ODcnxxlY

The present study was conducted in village >5alwa of National
Extension Service Block Hlsar of Haryana State. In the village,
there were 300 eligible couples. Of these 100 couples were selec-
ted with raTJom aanpling procedure. Among selected couples, males
were adrinistered a pretested structured respoKient schedule
containing questions pertaining to research objectives.

•Waruana Agricultural University Riaaer

534

Table 1 . Relatlomhlp (r-valuea) between different variables

Independent variable

Age ot the respondent
Exposure to Information eourcea
Caste of the respondent
Education of the respondent
Main occupation of respondent
Annual Income of family
Kranrledfre about family plannlns
Attitude towards family plannlnir

• Sifnlficant at P= 0.05

Knowledge

Attitude

Adoption

0.163

0.128

-0.096

0 . 390 **

0.280*

0.280**

0.222*

0.160

0.101

O.W*

0 . 482 **

0.320**

0 . 423 **

0 . 392 **

0.321**

0.311**

0 . 258 **

0.102

1.00

0 . 580 **

0.638**

0.580**

1.00

0.580**

•• Slitniflcant at P= 0,01

Adoption of farrdly planning practices decreased with increa-
Bins and the association between variablee was nejeatlve and
non-aiKnlfleant ae alao reported by Kaur and Slnjih ( 1 ^ 2 ) in a
study of wonon.

Exposure to Information Sources

Ihere was a positive and slfniricast assoelstion (Pa 0.01)
between exposure to Infonreition sources and knowledjn. attitude
and adoptlpn of family plannlRA* Kaur and Singh ( 1982 ) also made
similar obaervatlom.

Caste

Caste status In the society was positively and slpnificantly
associated (Ps O.Ol) with knowledge about family planning but
non-signiflcantly with attitude and adoption of practices. Biatia
( 1970 ). Kulharl et al. ( 1972 ) and Kaur and Singh { 1982 ) also
reported that higher caste status is conducive to family planning
but not significantly associated.

Education

Positive and significant association (P= 0 . 01 ) was found
between education of the respondent and hla knowldge, attitude
and practice of family planning. It might be because of greater
expos\n-e of educated person to outer world, higher preference to
small family and urge for knowledge. Aggarwal (I96I), Eh»£la
(1970) and MjkherJee ( 1973 ) iJawrlably found positive and signi-
ficant association of education with knowledge and attitude to-
wards family planning. Punia (I981) and Kaur and Sln^ ( 1982 )
reported education as a contrltaitory factor In adoption of family
planning praetli^ea.

Oecupatioa

Respoodeiits from hi^er status occupations had better kaow-
ledjce » rore favourable attitude aol higher adoption as ccxipared
to those from lower status occupatioss and the association was
significant (P* 0.01). Hjlcheriee (1973) had observed significant
association with knowledge aaJ ftiMa (1981) and Kaur and SinjSi
(1982) with adoption of practices.

Income

Annual incone of the hous^old was positively and signifi-
cantly asssoeiated (Ps 0.01) wi^ knowledge and attitude towards
family planning. Similar were the findings of Biatia (1970),
Mukheriee (1973), Punia (I98l) and Kaur and Singh (1982). Income
was ist signiflcaatly associated with practice and eejority of
'he highest Income group people did not like to practise it.

Rnnwledge

It was algmflcaBtly correlated with attitude and adoption of
practices. Kaur and Sln^ (1982) also faind knowledge of family
planning as the most important and hixhly contributing factor In
acceptance of family planning practices by rural wemen.

Attitude

With hl(9ier knowledge, the attitude was nore favourable azd
so the adoption of practices. Ihelr association was highly signi-
ficant (Ps 0.01).

Reasons for Adoption of Family Planning

Arrosg majority (78l() of aeeeptora of family plaaaLag, the
seed to llndt the size of family ia i.nereasing economic hardship
was the maior motivation, lOwire (1965) F«ts the same as indepen-
dent action towards fasdly plaaning occurred anoag educated and
economically sound people as they had learned to act Indpendently
and among those who had made to see the relationship between too
many children and their own property. Thus the eeononde reason
was the major motivation for adopting fertility control measures
specially in the faimllea with ndddle income and edueted tnwite er a.

Reasons for Non-adoption of Fwidlv PlaanLag

Among the non-adoptors, a large malorlty (64?») did not feel
its necessity primarily becuase a large ai-ber of respcadents
were beltw the age of 25 years and a few around middle fourties.
Lack of knowledge about control neasures was given by 65! of ®»-

636

odoplor. oiUy. (WJ) .1,0 reported ..™, for .Pother

vlll.jto of Haryapa. That the uae of coptraccptivea affects health
.{^raely, eaa plvep a reaaop for pot ualpp it bv roaooiataata
CKiilhorl et «1. 1972, Hikherlee mj) , «iri Z6% reported dl.aatla-
factlop of married life. Ip both c.ae. , the ma forlty cceprlaed of
Illiterate malea from atrlcultural occupatlop. Opposition from
Mdara aol reatrlctlol of .ocl.l value, vaa al^ reported aa

Khare (1965) also
rellrtoua .aloe, apd mother-lp-l.»a' roles Ip adoption

barrier In adoption vna co.-oidered by about one-fifth of non-
m ” rr’ lower incoam low^r

^t ^ h ”»»ona like lower
Slv Iml ° ' •‘I'llHo.-ol Income earimr to

Id^tli^^hr?^' eecurlty for old aye, a. the re.aona for »t
™»*>irea. Respondent, from very hl«.
« ”<■ —l-red chUd as

IMPLICATIONS

"Pfo » fatnily <roal. beinjr aff*et«J by

more eonrualty. Economic reason are

Powible for the adoption behavdmr than others aal:
s«JJitJ l»titutlon. Old axe

but* poverty riddled reetlons. would eo-ntrl-

tloml family planlAx and tasrinx rich for addl-

**»**«*”• this needs a stro*
Steps taken at thJ! Impleme.nt approprlte lexialation.

loprent ataxe may prove disastrous for India's deve«

hold f^'^tly plannlnx proxrartme is optimistic but to

"riSTtT [;?*'"■ “ "“'O "41«»01-*- Ineouall-

social ecn ru Lo i 1 ? eocial system which lerxely affect the

in tuji acc^T P'yel'Ploitleal makeup of the indlyldual which

flew ^ ‘h' XK-Ptien "f family planainn. A

problem ondT'or^^fT?''' Cpt atudylnit thla

S.a.r f»™l.tlnk me.aurea to popul.rla. the practice aaoan

Axitarwal, S.N lofii p

0.1.kr^r^““s”/*“«'* ~ *”

practices N i r n planmne knowledxe. atttltudes and

a^tia, J.c. 'l 9 TO E:’

towards faridlv ni* Itwwledxe and attitude# of fnales

y W'b'ihlt in a Puntab vlllaite. Tha Jeuriol ef

ffflilT V-lfere 25 <3J' >1^.

&TM 2 , E-^- Pay. 1973« Social a«T*cts of fanilv cl22=W. p.
11 ^ 139 . la V. (Ed) Faj’slv Plajsjr is liriia.

Isctjas Icrtitcta cf Pdbldc ldal=iatr:atlo3 . C^Ua.

Rscler, Julias^ 1555* ^5»2latJo3 placdzir ajd c^alltv cf l5fe,
FKcrt of tJ* P-c»eiiass the Sixth Irte-aatioaal Coafe— ■
esc* 03 Plaaaed Farerthoed.

I3rt£a3 r^etitirt* ef Usass Ccnroneatioa (TDC). 10=6. A * =c% 'ev ef
kacnrledre. a^titcda aad practice o' fanclv plecnpr- laiiaLS
laetitote cf Haaa Co^rucicatiaoa, Ve«r 0»lhi. 'tir»ira=hs>^.

lafiiaa las^ciGile Public Ctnios- 1*6^. A a rc HTg cf ava-eaesa
apd practice farclr pla3=.2r. Haathlr Pjfalic Ccisoa Str--
TBVs. «3d Acril. UPD. *«ev Dalra.

Slfltaclri, “I- actJ T. Tearo. 1572. F»cJt plaatiar aa tbs p»oole's
Rep»3b33e c* Cxips. Ir*«rast3»3al Flasced Par accheed Pede—a-
tlo3 *tedie3l Sullatic 6 1-t.

^tatorar, L.A. 1572. Ccroe^^tlee erjJiT c^ attatois twzrsis fa’dv
plappia? aaJ birth ecrtrol. Cicchliahra Pj.D. theels is
Edasatios. J»ielptr C~ v era l tv. Jaielpr— (»'.?.).

&are, P.£. 1*>^. A eta h - c* fctra-fardv crstlerw c^ (Pottratis-
ia ralatioa to famJv pla~~r rr is Isdba . The Sealers Arthro-
polofdsta iS (2) 73 - 73 .

3kS^, Gilab, asS T.o. Saach. 1^02. Accectacce o' fanclv pla^aac

pra c tlee erase rsraX vtres cUertaJe. lachaa Jaaraal o'
R&Ue Efeilth 23 (3)

Eelhcd* \.S., P. Jha. aid G.S. * 03 ! Srectaw*!. 1972. Soci^
per*p j 1 rsnablec ea*ocia*ed with pe»g 3 la*g attitezi* tatta-da
feallv plascaar. Msaaa 19 (2) lie-lJO.

Ha Aj e r jee. E-N. 1573. fawilv plar.ra.fg is &s*>i*s3! ea* Teral 'wdj.

Oaare ('terch-ftice 1773)5 33-^3*

Farets, C. a3d V- Kotha aSfpezi . I®?®. zatloa aaS attitoia

to w ’ d a farsily sixe azr* foiclT plBZssr - esslrris o*’ •ty-e
dsta f-os Icdia. Social Eielorr l5 (l)

Pida, P.^. 1^1. Accrrtaaoe cf far-. lx plaadar ia rcral Pfer-i^»,
ro* 9 (3)- 1-2.

Seal, S.C. 1577 . r«!ll»r plasn:!; pn^trs*** ersloatioa. laiias J.
Pchllc ffealth 21 (A)- 1««-199.

Triwe±i, C, 1^3. Hsa^ ur wer* aaj ajslwits o' mrlD Cimxi-Ij.
rtatas ef rcral faniUes, UxnbUahed P 2 .D. thesis. Ttm«-w
A rricolta^ Rescsrdi Icetitate, 'lev Eielhi,

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